Putative Cases Research Articles

Comparative Analysis of Transposable Elements Highlights Mobilome Diversity and Evolution in Vertebrates

Transposable elements (TEs) are major components of vertebrate genomes, with major roles in genome architecture and evolution. In order to characterize both common patterns and lineage-specific differences in TE content and TE evolution, we have compared the mobilomes of 23 vertebrate genomes, including 10 actinopterygian fish, 11 sarcopterygians, and 2 nonbony vertebrates. We found important variations in TE content (from 6% in the pufferfish tetraodon to 55% in zebrafish), with a more important relative contribution of TEs to genome size in fish than in mammals. Some TE superfamilies were found to be widespread in vertebrates, but most elements showed a more patchy distribution, indicative of multiple events of loss or gain. Interestingly, loss of major TE families was observed during the evolution of the sarcopterygian lineage, with a particularly strong reduction in TE diversity in birds and mammals. Phylogenetic trends in TE composition and activity were detected: Teleost fish genomes are dominated by DNA transposons and contain few ancient TE copies, while mammalian genomes have been predominantly shaped by nonlong terminal repeat retrotransposons, along with the persistence of older sequences. Differences were also found within lineages: The medaka fish genome underwent more recent TE amplification than the related platyfish, as observed for LINE retrotransposons in the mouse compared with the human genome. This study allows the identification of putative cases of horizontal transfer of TEs, and to tentatively infer the composition of the ancestral vertebrate mobilome. Taken together, the results obtained highlight the importance of TEs in the structure and evolution of vertebrate genomes, and demonstrate their major impact on genome diversity both between and within lineages.

What Causally Insensitive Events Tell us About Overdetermination

Some philosophers dismiss putative cases of causal overdetermination as joint causation underdescribed. In this paper I identify a special kind of causal overdetermination that cannot be reduced to joint causation, and use it to shed light on other kinds of redundant causation. Some effects are insensitive to the additive force of multiple causes. They are to be contrasted with sensitive effects, which physically and counterfactually vary according to the number and sorts of causes they have. I argue that sensitive effects are symptoms of joint causation; insensitive effects are symptoms of overdetermination. Insensitive effects resulting from multiple causes cannot be classified as “joint causation underdescribed,” but only as overdetermination. Finally, I suggest that cases of “trumping preemption” should be understood as cases of overdetermination with insensitive effects, and that Lewis’ “influence” account of causation cannot handle these cases.

Do wild titi monkeys show empathy?

Abstract. We observed a putative case of empathy among wild black-fronted titi monkeys (Callicebus nigrifrons) from two different groups (D and R). In over 10 years of behavioural observations of five habituated groups of this species, only low levels of inter-group tolerance have been observed. However, on one day, we encountered the adult male from group D limping (poor hind limb motor coordination) as he travelled alone along the ground. Interestingly, we observed that members of group R did not express any agonistic behaviour towards this neighbouring male and apparently allowed this disabled individual to follow them in the forest for over 5 h. They stayed low in the forest (< 2 m above the ground) and < 10 m horizontally from the individual, and remained in visual contact with him. At the end of the day, this male from group D slept in the sleeping site of group R and was groomed by the adult female of group R. Such tolerance between members of different groups has never been previously observed in this species. Furthermore, group R exposed themselves to increased predation risk by staying close to the ground for protracted periods. The behaviour of group R could be interpreted by as a putative case of empathic responding in this species.

THERE IS NO KNOWLEDGE FROM FALSEHOOD

AbstractA growing number of authors defend putative examples of knowledge from falsehood (KFF), inferential knowledge based in a critical or essential way on false premises, and they argue that KFF has important implications for many areas of epistemology (whether evidence can be false, the Gettier debate, defeasibility theories of knowledge, etc.). I argue, however, that there is no KFF, because in any supposed example either the falsehood does not contribute to the knowledge or the subject lacks knowledge. In particular, I show that if the subject actually has knowledge in putative KFF cases, then there is always a veridical evidential path meeting the basing conditions that accounts for her knowledge; if there is no such path, then the subject is in a type of Gettier case. All the recent arguments that rely on KFF are therefore based on a mistake.

Upward and Downward Causation from a Relational-Horizontal Ontological Perspective

Downward causation (DC) exercised by emergent properties of wholes upon their lower-level constituents’ properties has been accused of conceptual and metaphysical incoherence. Only upward causation is usually peacefully accepted. The aim of this paper is to criticize and refuse (1) the traditional hierarchical-vertical way of conceiving both types of causation, although preserving their deepest ontological significance, as well as (2) the widespread acceptance of the traditional atomistic-combinatorial view of the entities and the relations that constitute the so-called ‘emergence base’. Assuming those two perspectives with no reserves, we are condemned to confine our debate to the question of whether reified wholes can have the power to downwardly change or influence their lower-level parts, a question which seems profoundly misleading to me. I therefore propose an alternative relational ontological view, assuming a straightforward horizontal and intra-level way of representing those putative cases of cross-level causation. I finally confront two recent replies to Kim’s well-known objections to DC—Craver and Bechtel (Biol Philos 22:547–563, 2007) and Kistler (Philos Psychol 22(5):595–609, 2009)—, emphasizing their global positive approaches, as well as the reasons why their accounts still seem insufficient to me. I conclude arguing that both Kim’s principle of the causal closure of the physical domain and its allegation of an overdetermination in cases of DC can be surpassed by the new relational ontological perspective presented here.

Acute liver allograft antibody-mediated rejection: an inter-institutional study of significant histopathological features.

Acute antibody-mediated rejection (AMR) occurs in a small minority of sensitized liver transplant recipients. Although histopathological characteristics have been described, specific features that could be used (1) to make a generalizable scoring system and (2) to trigger a more in-depth analysis are needed to screen for this rare but important finding. Toward this goal, we created training and validation cohorts of putative acute AMR and control cases from 3 high-volume liver transplant programs; these cases were evaluated blindly by 4 independent transplant pathologists. Evaluations of hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) sections were performed alone without knowledge of either serum donor-specific human leukocyte antigen alloantibody (DSA) results or complement component 4d (C4d) stains. Routine histopathological features that strongly correlated with severe acute AMR included portal eosinophilia, portal vein endothelial cell hypertrophy, eosinophilic central venulitis, central venulitis severity, and cholestasis. Acute AMR inversely correlated with lymphocytic venulitis and lymphocytic portal inflammation. These and other characteristics were incorporated into models created from the training cohort alone. The final acute antibody-mediated rejection score (aAMR score)--the sum of portal vein endothelial cell hypertrophy, portal eosinophilia, and eosinophilic venulitis divided by the sum of lymphocytic portal inflammation and lymphocytic venulitis--exhibited a strong correlation with severe acute AMR in the training cohort [odds ratio (OR) = 2.86, P < 0.001] and the validation cohort (OR = 2.49, P < 0.001). SPSS tree classification was used to select 2 cutoffs: one that optimized specificity at a score > 1.75 (sensitivity = 34%, specificity = 86%) and another that optimized sensitivity at a score > 1.0 (sensitivity = 81%, specificity = 71%). In conclusion, the routine histopathological features of the aAMR score can be used to screen patients for acute AMR via routine H&E staining of indication liver transplant biopsy samples; however, a definitive diagnosis requires substantiation by DSA testing, diffuse C4d staining, and the exclusion of other insults.

Rate, Triggers, Severity and Management of Anaphylaxis in Adults Treated in a Canadian Emergency Department

Background: The Cross-Canada Anaphylaxis Registry (C-CARE) assesses the triggers and management of anaphylaxis and identifies predictors of the development of severe allergic reactions and of epinephrine use. Here, we present data from an urban adult tertiary care emergency department (ED) in Montreal, Canada. Methods: Potential anaphylaxis cases were identified using ICD-10 codes related to anaphylaxis or allergic reactions. Putative cases underwent chart review to ensure they met anaphylaxis diagnostic criteria. Demographic, clinical and management data were collected. Multivariate logistic regressions were conducted to assess the effect of demographic characteristics, triggers, and comorbidities on severity and management of reactions. Results: Among 37,730 ED visits, 0.26% (95% CI 0.21, 0.32) fulfilled the definition of anaphylaxis. Food was the suspected trigger in almost 60% of cases. Epinephrine was not administered in almost half of moderate-to-severe cases, and similar numbers of individuals with moderate-to-severe reactions were not prescribed an epinephrine autoinjector. Reaction to shellfish was associated with more severe reactions (OR 13.9; 95% CI 2.2, 89.4). Older individuals and those not receiving steroids were more likely managed without epinephrine (OR 1.04; 95% CI 1.01, 1.07 and OR 2.97; 95% CI 1.05, 8.39, respectively). Conclusions: Anaphylaxis accounted for a substantial number of ED visits in adults, and the most common trigger was food. There is non-adherence to guidelines recommending epinephrine use for all cases of anaphylaxis. We postulate that this may be related to concerns regarding the side effects of epinephrine in adults.

Prevalence Rate of Autism Continues Steady Rise

Back to table of contents Previous article Next article Clinical and Research NewsFull AccessPrevalence Rate of Autism Continues Steady RiseJoan Arehart-TreichelJoan Arehart-TreichelSearch for more papers by this authorPublished Online:25 Apr 2014https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.pn.2014.5a9AbstractRegardless of whether the increasing prevalence rate of autism spectrum disorder is due to better diagnosis or an actual increase in cases, more youngsters will need services.On March 28, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) published in its Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report that 1 in 68 American children has autism spectrum disorder (ASD). That translates to 14.7 per 1,000 8-year-olds.This rate is about 30 percent higher than the prevalence of ASD that the CDC reported in 2012, which was 1 in 88 children—that is, 11.3 per 1,000 8-year-olds.The new finding is based on 2010 data from 11 sites participating in the CDC’s long-running Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) network. A total of 363,749 8-year-old children were evaluated for the report, representing 9 percent of the U.S. population of 8-year-olds in 2010. (The 2012 report reflected data gathered in 2008.)Other new findings indicate that ASD is almost five times more common among boys than girls and that white children are more likely to be identified with the disorder than black or Hispanic children are. Although the level of intellectual ability varies greatly among children with ASD, ranging from severe intellectual challenges to average or above-average intellectual ability, the new findings likewise show that almost half the children identified with ASD have average or above-average intellectual ability.“The CDC report was based on a review of records rather than actual clinical assessments,” David Fassler, M.D., a clinical professor of psychiatry at the University of Vermont, a child and adolescent psychiatrist, and APA treasurer, noted in an interview with Psychiatric News. “As a result, it tells us more about how often autism is being diagnosed as opposed to changes in the underlying incidence. The data were also derived from relatively few states. However, even in this limited sample, the geographic variations are quite striking and clearly warrant further investigation. From a clinical perspective, increased awareness is leading to earlier recognition and more accurate diagnoses. The real challenge is to make sure that all these kids have access to the comprehensive services they need and deserve.”“Is this increase [in ASD] a mark of better care, with more cases identified and treated, or is this a reflection of a continually growing public health care emergency due to more children affected?” Thomas Insel, M.D., director of the National Institute of Mental Health, asked in his March 27 blog. “ADDM cannot answer these questions, but it does point to the need for a population-wide study, as currently planned by the CDC and Autism Speaks in South Carolina…. Whatever the meaning of the new ADDM report, there is little doubt that more children and more adults on the autism spectrum will require more services.”Ever since the ADDM was launched in 2000, ADDM staff members have determined cases of ASD in two phases. The first phase involves screening and abstracting records from multiple sources in the community. In the second phase, clinicians review the collected data and determine whether putative ASD cases are truly ASD according to DSM criteria. ASD case definitions for both 2010 and 2012, as well as for the earlier years, were based on DSM-IV-TR. However, beginning this year, ASD case definitions will be based on DSM-5 criteria.Since its first study of autism prevalence, the ADDM has found that the number of children diagnosed with the disorder has been on a steady upward trajectory. Indeed, “The global prevalence of autism has increased 20-fold to 30-fold since the earliest epidemiologic studies were conducted in the late 1960s and early 1970s,” the new report noted. ■“Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children Aged Eight Years—Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2010” can be accessed here. ISSUES NewArchived

Southern Min m in discourse

This study investigates a putative case of negative concord in Southern Min where two negatives (m‘not’ and bian ‘need.not’) co-occur without canceling each other out semantically. Contra common belief, I argue that Southern Min does not have negative concord. Corpus data on m-bian and m-tioh are examined, where tioh ‘need’ and bian are necessity modal counterparts. Corpus findings reveal that negativity in m participates in neither m-bian nor m-tioh in semantics. Feature loss is discovered in m, which is then taken as evidence for m being a new category other than negative. I analyze m under investigation as mood, situated in the discourse layer.

Analysis of CACTA transposases reveals intron loss as major factor influencing their exon/intron structure in monocotyledonous and eudicotyledonous hosts.

BackgroundCACTA elements are DNA transposons and are found in numerous organisms. Despite their low activity, several thousand copies can be identified in many genomes. CACTA elements transpose using a ‘cut-and-paste’ mechanism, which is facilitated by a DDE transposase. DDE transposases from CACTA elements contain, despite their conserved function, different exon numbers among various CACTA families. While earlier studies analyzed the ancestral history of the DDE transposases, no studies have examined exon loss and gain with a view of mechanisms that could drive the changes.ResultsWe analyzed 64 transposases from different CACTA families among monocotyledonous and eudicotyledonous host species. The annotation of the exon/intron boundaries showed a range from one to six exons. A robust multiple sequence alignment of the 64 transposases based on their protein sequences was created and used for phylogenetic analysis, which revealed eight different clades. We observed that the exon numbers in CACTA transposases are not specific for a host genome. We found that ancient CACTA lineages diverged before the divergence of monocotyledons and eudicotyledons. Most exon/intron boundaries were found in three distinct regions among all the transposases, grouping 63 conserved intron/exon boundaries.ConclusionsWe propose a model for the ancestral CACTA transposase gene, which consists of four exons, that predates the divergence of the monocotyledons and eudicotyledons. Based on this model, we propose pathways of intron loss or gain to explain the observed variation in exon numbers. While intron loss appears to have prevailed, a putative case of intron gain was nevertheless observed.

Annals of Crony Capitalism: Revisiting the AIG Bailout

Cronyism may well be an intensifying problem in contemporary American capitalism, but an incorrect identification and labeling of crony capitalism subverts meaningful reform. Five years after considerable financial assistance was provided to the American International Group by the New York Federal Reserve Bank and the U.S. Treasury, the AIG bailout story remains highly controversial as a putative case of capitalism gone bad — crony capitalism at its worst. This paper reviews the record surrounding the AIG bankruptcy and argues that the bailout decision and the subsequent structure of the bailout tell a much different story than the one characterized as “crony capitalism.” Based on a close reading of this record, the story I tell is that the lingering controversies over the bailout are not a result of the corrupt behavior of Federal Reserve and Treasury officials. Rather, they are the result of impromptu and highly improvised risk management by government officials who had no clear regulatory authority over failing investment banks and insurance companies — like Bear Stearns, Lehman Brothers, and AIG — and who were conditioned by their professional training and current responsibilities to focus on the worst-case scenarios following the collapse of large financial institutions holding fast-depreciating real estate assets. Operating under severe time constraints and existential anxiety, mistakes and missteps were made by the New York Fed in its unfamiliar role as the chief restructuring officer of AIG. But this is far different story than calculated corruption benefiting large domestic and foreign banks vulnerable to an AIG collapse. This essay is a cautionary tale about exaggerated (and false) claims of institutional corruption in the public and private sectors. We are currently witnessing a sufficient number of cases of both unlawful and lawful-but-corrupt behavior to motivate a debate about meaningful reforms. Inaccurate characterizations of institutional and individual behavior can only serve to contaminate this important conversation.

Mutations in human lipoyltransferase gene LIPT1cause a Leigh disease with secondary deficiency for pyruvate and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase

BackgroundSynthesis and apoenzyme attachment of lipoic acid have emerged as a new complex metabolic pathway. Mutations in several genes involved in the lipoic acid de novo pathway have recently been described (i.e., LIAS, NFU1, BOLA3, IBA57), but no mutation was found so far in genes involved in the specific process of attachment of lipoic acid to apoenzymes pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDHc), α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (α-KGDHc) and branched chain α-keto acid dehydrogenase (BCKDHc) complexes.MethodsExome capture was performed in a boy who developed Leigh disease following a gastroenteritis and had combined PDH and α-KGDH deficiency with a unique amino acid profile that partly ressembled E3 subunit (dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase / DLD) deficiency. Functional studies on patient fibroblasts were performed. Lipoic acid administration was tested on the LIPT1 ortholog lip3 deletion strain yeast and on patient fibroblasts.ResultsExome sequencing identified two heterozygous mutations (c.875C > G and c.535A > G) in the LIPT1 gene that encodes a mitochondrial lipoyltransferase which is thought to catalyze the attachment of lipoic acid on PDHc, α-KGDHc, and BCKDHc. Anti-lipoic acid antibodies revealed absent expression of PDH E2, BCKDH E2 and α-KGDH E2 subunits. Accordingly, the production of 14CO2 by patient fibroblasts after incubation with 14Cglucose, 14Cbutyrate or 14C3OHbutyrate was very low compared to controls. cDNA transfection experiments on patient fibroblasts rescued PDH and α-KGDH activities and normalized the levels of pyruvate and 3OHbutyrate in cell supernatants. The yeast lip3 deletion strain showed improved growth on ethanol medium after lipoic acid supplementation and incubation of the patient fibroblasts with lipoic acid decreased lactate level in cell supernatants.ConclusionWe report here a putative case of impaired free or H protein-derived lipoic acid attachment due to LIPT1 mutations as a cause of PDH and α-KGDH deficiencies. Our study calls for renewed efforts to understand the mechanisms of pathology of lipoic acid-related defects and their heterogeneous biochemical expression, in order to devise efficient diagnostic procedures and possible therapies.

Development and evaluation of a real-time method of simultaneous amplification and testing of enterovirus 71 incorporating a RNA internal control system

Human enterovirus 71 (EV71) is a primary etiological agent of hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD). The associated infections have posed a serious threat to the public health. In the present study, a real-time simultaneous amplification and testing (SAT) technology was developed for detecting EV71 (SAT-EV71). The RNA of EV71 and an internal control (IC) were amplified and analyzed simultaneously by isothermal amplification and real-time detection of fluorescence using routine real-time PCR. Furthermore, this SAT-EV71 method with IC was evaluated by analyzing 256 clinical specimens including 60 enterovirus-positive ones confirmed by the virus-cell culture method. The other 196 putative ones were further analyzed by a PCR-fluorescence probing assay. The results showed that SAT-EV71 can detect the EV71 VP1 with a minimum of 10 copies per reaction at an optimal concentration of IC (5000 copies per reaction) with a high sensitivity and specificity. Meanwhile, the use of IC can prevent false negatives effectively by monitoring the processes of nucleic acid extraction and amplification. Overall, this easy-to-perform SAT-EV71 with IC can detect EV71 sensitively and specifically. It might be used in the molecular diagnosis of EV71 in putative cases of HFMD.

Evolution of viral sensing RIG-I-like receptor genes in Leporidae genera Oryctolagus, Sylvilagus, and Lepus

One of the most severe European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) pathogens is myxoma virus (MYXV), a rabbit-specific leporipoxvirus that causes the highly lethal disease myxomatosis. Other leporid genera, Sylvilagus and Lepus, encompass species with variable susceptibilities to MYXV, but these do not develop the lethal form of the disease. The protective role of the retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I/DDX58) in sensing MYXV in nonpermissive human myeloid cells prompted the study of the RIG-I-like receptor (RLR) family evolution in the three leporid genera. This viral-sensor family also includes the melanoma differentiation-associated factor 5 (MDA5/IFIH1), and the laboratory of genetics and physiology 2 (LGP2/DHX58). Considering specifically the MYXV susceptible host (European rabbit) and one of the virus natural long-term hosts (Sylvilagus bachmani, brush rabbit), the amino acid differences of positively selected sites in RIG-I between the two species were located in the protein region responsible for viral RNA recognition and binding, the repressor domain. Such differences might play a determinant role in how MYXV is sensed. When looking for episodic selection on MDA5 and LGP2 of the eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus), we also uncovered evidence of selective pressures that might be exerted by a species-specific leporipoxvirus, the Shope fibroma virus. Finally, a putative alternative splicing case was identified in Oryctolagus and Lepus MDA5 isoforms, corresponding to the deletion of one specific exon. This study provided the first insights into the evolution of the leporid RLR gene family that helps illuminate the origins of the species-specific innate responses to pathogens and more specifically to MYXV.

Performance of a rapid human metapneumovirus antigen test during an outbreak in a long-term care facility

Using a newly developed rapid test, an outbreak of human metapneumovirus (HMPV) infection in a long-term care facility was detected within only 2 days after the onset of symptoms in a putative index case. The outbreak was almost under control within 8 days mainly by zoning patients, with the exception of two cases of HMPV that were diagnosed 16 and 17 days after the onset of the outbreak. According to an immunological diagnosis as well as the rapid test, it was eventually proven that 18 patients had HMPV infections. We suspected that even asymptomatic residents, who had not been completely separated from the facility population, were a source of infection. That suggested that all asymptomatic residents should be tested and that the separation of the infected patients should be absolute, if an outbreak of HMPV infection is suspected in such a facility.

The genome of the platyfish, Xiphophorus maculatus, provides insights into evolutionary adaptation and several complex traits

Several attributes intuitively considered to be typical mammalian features, such as complex behavior, live birth, and malignant diseases like cancer, also appeared several times independently in so-called “lower” vertebrates. The genetic mechanisms underlying the evolution of these elaborate traits are poorly understood. The platyfish, Xiphophorus maculatus, offers a unique model to better understand the molecular biology of such traits. Herein we detail sequencing of the platyfish genome. Integrating genome assembly with extensive genetic maps uncovered that fish, in contrast to mammals, exhibit an unexpected evolutionary stability of chromosomes. Genes associated with viviparity show signatures of positive selection identifying new putative functional domains and rare cases of parallel evolution. We also discovered that genes implicated in cognition possess an unexpected high rate of duplicate gene retention after the teleost genome duplication suggesting a hypothesis for the evolution of the great behavioral complexity in fish, which exceeds that in amphibians and reptiles.

Two Puzzles About Mercy

Anslem raised a puzzle about mercy: How can anyone (God, say, or a judge) be both just and merciful at the same time? For it seemed to Anselm that justice requires giving people what they deserve, while being merciful involves treating people less harshly than they deserve. This puzzle has led to a number of analyses of mercy. But a strange thing emerges from discussions of this topic: people seem to have wildly divergent intuitions about putative cases of mercy. Examples that are taken by some to be paradigm cases of mercy are seen by others to be clear instances of non‐mercy. This phenomenon gives rise to a new puzzle: Why is it that people seem to have such wildly divergent intuitions about putative examples of mercy? This paper proposes a new analysis of mercy that provides solutions to both of these puzzles about mercy.

Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Kyrgyzstan: Seroprevalence, Risk Factor Analysis, and Estimate of Congenital and AIDS-Related Toxoplasmosis

BackgroundHIV-prevalence, as well as incidence of zoonotic parasitic diseases like cystic echinococcosis, has increased in the Kyrgyz Republic due to fundamental socio-economic changes after the breakdown of the Soviet Union. The possible impact on morbidity and mortality caused by Toxoplasma gondii infection in congenital toxoplasmosis or as an opportunistic infection in the emerging AIDS pandemic has not been reported from Kyrgyzstan.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe screened 1,061 rural and 899 urban people to determine the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection in 2 representative but epidemiologically distinct populations in Kyrgyzstan. The rural population was from a typical agricultural district where sheep husbandry is a major occupation. The urban population was selected in collaboration with several diagnostic laboratories in Bishkek, the largest city in Kyrgyzstan. We designed a questionnaire that was used on all rural subjects so a risk-factor analysis could be undertaken. The samples from the urban population were anonymous and only data with regard to age and gender was available. Estimates of putative cases of congenital and AIDS-related toxoplasmosis in the whole country were made from the results of the serology. Specific antibodies (IgG) against Triton X-100 extracted antigens of T. gondii tachyzoites from in vitro cultures were determined by ELISA. Overall seroprevalence of infection with T. gondii in people living in rural vs. urban areas was 6.2% (95%CI: 4.8–7.8) (adjusted seroprevalence based on census figures 5.1%, 95% CI 3.9–6.5), and 19.0% (95%CI: 16.5–21.7) (adjusted 16.4%, 95% CI 14.1–19.3), respectively, without significant gender-specific differences. The seroprevalence increased with age. Independently low social status increased the risk of Toxoplasma seropositivity while increasing numbers of sheep owned decreased the risk of seropositivity. Water supply, consumption of unpasteurized milk products or undercooked meat, as well as cat ownership, had no significant influence on the risk for seropositivity.ConclusionsWe present a first seroprevalence analysis for human T. gondii infection in the Kyrgyz Republic. Based on these data we estimate that 173 (95% CI 136–216) Kyrgyz children will be born annually to mothers who seroconverted to toxoplasmosis during pregnancy. In addition, between 350 and 1,000 HIV-infected persons are currently estimated to be seropositive for toxoplasmosis. Taken together, this suggests a substantial impact of congenital and AIDS-related symptomatic toxoplasmosis on morbidity and mortality in Kyrgyzstan.

Heterochronic genes in plant evolution and development

Evolution of morphology includes evolutionary shifts of developmental processes in space or in time. Heterochronic evolution is defined as a temporal shift. The concept of heterochrony has been very rewarding to investigators of both animal and plant developmental evolution, because it has strong explanatory power when trying to understand morphological diversity. While for animals, extensive literature on heterochrony developed along with the field of evolution of development, in plants the concept has been applied less often and is less elaborately developed. Yet novel genetic findings highlight heterochrony as a developmental and evolutionary process in plants. Similar to what has been found for the worm Caenorhabditis, a heterochronic gene pathway controlling developmental timing has been elucidated in flowering plants. Two antagonistic microRNA’s miR156 and miR172 target two gene families of transcription factors, SQUAMOSA PROMOTOR BINDING PROTEIN-LIKE and APETALA2-like, respectively. Here, we propose that this finding now allows the molecular investigation of cases of heterochronic evolution in plants. We illustrate this point by examining microRNA expression patterns in the Antirrhinum majus incomposita and choripetala heterochronic mutants. Some of the more beautiful putative cases of heterochronic evolution can be found outside flowering plants, but little is known about the extent of conservation of this flowering plant pathway in other land plants. We show that the expression of an APETALA2-like gene decreases with age in a fern species. This contributes to the idea that ferns share some heterochronic gene functions with flowering plants.

Clinical Manifestations and Case Management of Ebola Haemorrhagic Fever Caused by a Newly Identified Virus Strain, Bundibugyo, Uganda, 2007–2008

A confirmed Ebola haemorrhagic fever (EHF) outbreak in Bundibugyo, Uganda, November 2007–February 2008, was caused by a putative new species (Bundibugyo ebolavirus). It included 93 putative cases, 56 laboratory-confirmed cases, and 37 deaths (CFR = 25%). Study objectives are to describe clinical manifestations and case management for 26 hospitalised laboratory-confirmed EHF patients. Clinical findings are congruous with previously reported EHF infections. The most frequently experienced symptoms were non-bloody diarrhoea (81%), severe headache (81%), and asthenia (77%). Seven patients reported or were observed with haemorrhagic symptoms, six of whom died. Ebola care remains difficult due to the resource-poor setting of outbreaks and the infection-control procedures required. However, quality data collection is essential to evaluate case definitions and therapeutic interventions, and needs improvement in future epidemics. Organizations usually involved in EHF case management have a particular responsibility in this respect.