Puna Chicory Research Articles

Production and chemical composition of pasture forbs with high bioactive compounds in a low input production system in the Pacific Northwest

Pasture forbs are increasingly being incorporated in pasture systems for their high nutritive value and biologically active secondary compounds as our understanding of their functional roles advances. A 2-year study investigated the effects of varietal differences and companion legume species on forage dry matter (DM) production, nutritive value, and plant secondary composition of two chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) cultivars (Antler and Grasslands Puna) grown in monoculture and in binary mixtures with red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) or birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.). Antler chicory out-yielded Grasslands Puna chicory in the 2017/2018 growing season but the superiority of Antler was not consistent in 2018/2019. Binary mixtures of chicory and red clover consistently provided greater DM yield and higher nutritive quality forage than chicory monocultures. Intercropping birdsfoot trefoil with chicory cultivar Grasslands Puna yielded more DM in 2018/2019 and had lower NDF content in summer compared to chicory monocultures, but not when intercropped with Antler. Intercropping led to increased condensed tannin (CT) concentrations in forages as compared to monocultures. Antler chicory contained 7.3 times more (CT) compared to Grasslands Puna, but there was no significant difference in their anthocyanin concentrations.

First Report of Stolbur Phytoplasma Affecting Cichorium intybus in Serbia.

Chicory (Cichorium intybus, Asteraceae) is a typical Mediterranean plant indigenous to Europe, western Asia, Egypt, and North America (3). It is commonly consumed as a fresh vegetable in salads. In rural areas of Serbia it grows as a weed in crops, but it is used in folk medicine to treat skin disorders due to its antihepatotoxic activity (3). Methanol extracts of chicory leaves showed moderate antibacterial activity against enteric bacteria (3). A phytoplasma-like disease, expressed as proliferation of chicory shoots and flowers, was observed on wild plants for the first time in Obrenovac vicinity (44°40' N, 20°20' E) in July 2012. A flattening of the stem with a large number of filamentous leaves, contortion and abnormal growth of flowers on the stem (typical fasciation symptoms) were observed. Diseased plants did not produce seeds. Total DNA was extracted from the leaf midveins of 15 symptomatic and five symptomless plants (4). PCR amplification of 1.5-kb 16S rDNA fragment was performed using DreamTaq Green master mix (Thermo Scientific, Lithuania) and phytoplasma universal primer pairs P1/16S-Sr (1). Products of nested PCR (1.2 kb) were obtained using primer pair R16F2n/R2 (1). Both amplicons were detected in all diseased samples; however, DNA from symptomless samples yielded no amplicons. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of R16F2n/R2 PCR products was performed in independent reactions using four endonucleases (AluI, TruI1, HhaI and HpaII). RFLP patterns from chicory samples were compared to those of Stolbur (STOL), Aster Yellows (AY), Flavescence Dorée-C (FD-C), Poinsettia Branch-Inducing (PoiBI), and Clover Yellow Edge (CYE) phytoplasmas (1). All RFLP profiles from the chicory samples were identical to STOL reference strain, indicating that diseased chicory was affected by a phytoplasma that belongs to 'Candidatus Phytoplasma solani' (16SrXII-A group). The 16S rDNA sequence of representative sample from symptomatic plant (Vp4) was deposited under accession number KF661322 in NCBI GenBank. It showed 100% identity to KF263684.1 from Iranian peach, JQ730742.1 from Serbian valerian, and JQ730750 from Serbian corn, all belonging to the 'Ca. P. solani' taxon. Puna chicory disease on C. intybus associated with a subgroup 16SrV-B of phytoplasma was detected in China (2). This is the first report of the Stolbur phytoplasma associated with fasciation of C. intybus in Serbia and worldwide.

First Report of Elm Yellows Subgroup 16SrV-B Phytoplasma as the Cause of Rose Balsam Phyllody in China.

Rose balsam (Impatiens balsamina L.) is an ornamental species frequently cultivated in China and the red flower is often used as nail polish in rural regions. The phytoplasmas previously reported with rose balsam phyllody in China have been classified as aster yellows group (16SrI) (1). In August 2012, some rose balsams were observed with typical phytoplasma symptoms in Handan City, Hebei Province, China, with an incidence of about 70% in the fields. The flowers turned green and petals fascicled. The new leaves wrinkled and deformed and internodes shortened. Infected plants were stunted, matured prematurely, and failed to produce seeds. To confirm phytoplasma infection, 100 mg of plant tissue (leaves, petals) was collected from five symptomatic and four asymptomatic plants and total DNA was extracted using a modified cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) method (2). The 16S rDNA gene was amplified by nested PCR using primer pair P1/P7 followed by R16F2n/R16R2 (3). No amplicons were generated with DNA from asymptomatic samples, but amplicons of approximately 1.2 kb were obtained with DNA from five symptomatic samples. The amplified products were purified with aTIANgel midi purification kit (Tiangen, Beijing) and sequenced at the Sangon Biotech facility (Shanghai, China). The sequences of the amplicons were 100% identical and deposited in NCBI GenBank (Accession No. KC993832). The 16S rDNA gene sequence from this phytoplasma was 99% similar to Jujube witches broom phytoplasma (JQ675716), Puna chicory flat stem phytoplasma (JN582266), Plum yellows phytoplasma (FJ459914), and other elm yellows group phytoplasmas by BLAST search of the NCBI database. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analyses were carried out by digesting the 1.2-kb R16F2n/R16R2 nested PCR product with restriction enzymes AluI, RsaI, HhaI, HpaI, Eco RI, TaqI, HaeIII, HinfI, and KpnI (Takara, Dalian). The 16S rDNA RFLP patterns matched that of Jujube witches broom phytoplasma (JWB, subgroup 16SrV-B) (4). Nucleotide sequences of rose balsam phyllody were analyzed by iPhyClassifier software, which revealed that it had maximum similarity to the reference pattern of 16Sr group V, subgroup B (AB052876). All samples were detected with transmission electron microscopy. The results showed phytoplasma-like cells in phloem sieve element of symptomatic plants, while no phytoplasma-like cells were observed in healthy phloem tissues. The phytoplasma cells ranged from 230 to 470 nm in diameter and were ellipsoidal or orbicular with visible membranes. Combining the RFLP pattern and sequence analysis by iPhyClassifier, we classified the phytoplasma causing rose balsam phyllody into subgroup 16SrV-B. To our knowledge, this is the first report of 16SrV-B group phytoplasmas infecting rose balsam in China.

First Report of Elm Yellows Subgroup 16SrV-B Phytoplasma Infecting Chinese Tulip Tree in China.

Chinese tulip tree (Liriodendron chinensis) is native to China and is planted all around the country as an ornamental tree. In July of 2011, some Chinese tulip trees with typical phytoplasma symptoms were found in Baoding City, Hebei Province, China. Symptoms included yellowing of leaves, slow decline, little leaves, and death of entire plants. To confirm phytoplasma infection of these plants, total DNA was extracted from 100 mg of fresh leaf midribs collected from leaves of nine symptomatic and eight asymptomatic plants with a plant DNA extract kit (Tiangen, Beijing, China) according to the manufacturer's protocols. Using 16S rRNA phytoplasma universal primer pairs P1/P7 followed by R16F2n/R16R2, a nest PCR was carried out (1,2). The results showed that the phytoplasma was only detected in symptomatic samples by nested PCR, while the asymptomatic were negative. An approximate 1.2-kb specific fragment was obtained from the DNA of nine symptomatic plants, but no product was amplified from the leaves of eight healthy ones. The amplified products were cloned and sequenced. The sequence was deposited in GenBank Data Libraries under Accession No. JQ585925 and shared the highest homology of 99% with Puna chicory flat stem phytoplasma (GenBank Accession No. JN582266), Apricot leaf roll phytoplasma (GenBank Accession No. FJ572660), Jujube witches'-broom phytoplasma (GenBank Accession No. AY197661), and other elm yellows group phytoplasmas by BLAST analysis with that of other phytoplasmas from GenBank. Meanwhile, the sequence data was analyzed by iPhyClassifier software and the result showed that the 16S rDNA F2nR2 fragment was identical (similarity coefficient 1.00) to the reference patterns of 16Sr group V, subgroup B (GenBank Accession No.AB052876) (3). Combining the BLAST analysis in GenBank and the analysis of iPhyClassifier, we classified the phytoplasma causing Chinese tulip tree yellow leaves disease into subgroup 16SrV-B. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the 16SrVB group phytoplasmas infecting Chinese tulip tree in China.

Detection and identification of the elm yellows group phytoplasma associated with Puna chicory flat stem in China

In 2010 and 2011, the Puna chicory flat stem (PCFS) symptom was observed in an experimental field around Yangling, Shaanxi Province, China. Pleomorphic phytoplasma-like bodies were observed in the phloem sieve tube elements of symptomatic plants under transmission electron microscope (TEM). The presence of phytoplasma was further confirmed by a nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which amplified a 1.2 kb fragment using universal primer pairs P1/P6 followed by further amplification using primer pairs R16F2n/R16R2. The 1.1 kb 16S rRNA gene fragments were obtained by nested PCR with primer pairs P1/P6 followed by 16SrV group-specific primer pairs R16(V)F1/R16(V)R1 and indicated that the PCFS phytoplasma was closely related to the elm yellows (EY) group (16SrV). Phylogenetic analysis and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis demonstrated that the PCFS phytoplasma belongs to subgroup 16SrV-B. This is the first report of Puna chicory disease associated with a subgroup 16SrV-B of phytoplasma in China.

Growth Rate, Carcass Trait and Blood Chemistry of Cross-bred Meat Goats Grazing Puna Chicory, Rackmaster Refuge Mix and Sahara Bermudagrass

Lema, M., Kebe, S. and Opio, R. 2008. Growth rate, carcass trait and blood chemistry of cross-bred meat goats grazing Puna chicory, rackmaster refuge mix and Sahara bermudagrass. J. Appl. Anim. Res., 33: 1–6. A grazing trial was conducted to evaluate Puna chicory (Cichorium intybus L.), Rackmaster Refuge Mix [a blend of chicory, mustard (Sinapis alba), turnips (Brassica rapa), clover (Trifolium repens), kale (Brassica oleracea) and rape (Brassica napus)] and Sahara bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) as summer pasture for meat goats. Puna chicory and Rackmaster refuge were higher in crude protein (CP), net energy lactation (NE1), net energy gain (NEg), total digestible nutrient (TDN), relative feed value (RFV), Ca, P, Mg and K contents and lower (P<0.05) in ADF than Sahara bermudagrass. Puna chicory was higher (P<0.05) in P, K and Mg than Rackmaster refuge. Rackmaster refuge was higher (P<0.05) than Puna Chicory in TDN and RFV. But Puna chicory supported better performance in terms of average daily gain, live weight gain per ha, dressing percentage and carcass characteristics as compared to Sahara bermudagrass, Rackmaster refuge mix being in between. It is concluded that Puna chicory may result in improved goat productivity in terms of growth rate and chevon production if used as a summer pasture.

Evaluation of Cultivated Summer Pastures for Meat Goats in Tennessee

Lema, M., Kebe, S., Opio, R. and Fenderson, C. 2006. Evaluation of cultivated summer pastures for meat goats in Tennessee. J. Appl. Anim. Res., 30: 57–62. A grazing trial was conducted to evaluate Puna forage chicory (Cichorium intybus L.), hybrid Penleaf pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) and Sahara bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) as summer pasture for meat goats. Puna chicory was 28.3 and 67.7% higher (P<0.05) in crude protein (CP), 28.1 and 35.4% lower (P<0.05) in acid detergent fiber (ADF) and 40.0 and 46.0% lower (P<s0.05) in neutral detergent fiber (NDF) than Penleaf pearl millet and Sahara bermudagrass, respectively. Relative feed value (RFV), Ca, P, Mg and K contents were significantly higher (P<0.01) for Puna chicory than for Penleaf pearl millet and Sahara bermudagrass. Penleaf pearl millet was higher (P<0.01) than Sahara bermudagrass in P, K and Mg content. Puna chicory and Pearl millet produced 73 and 70% higher (P<0.05) forage CP per ha, respectively than Sahara bermudagrass. Average daily gain (ADG) and live weight gain per ha of does grazing Puna chicory were significantly higher (P<0.05) than those grazing Sahara bermudagrass does and Penleaf pearl millet. It is concluded that Puna chicory is a better fodder than Penleaf pearlmillet and Sahara bermudagrass.

Forage Chicory and Plantain Nutritive Value of Herbage at Variable Grazing Frequencies and Intensities

Cultivars of forage chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) and plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.) grown in the northeastern USA have acceptable seasonal productivity; however, their reproductive habit could limit herbage nutritive value. The nutritive value of chicory and plantain cultivars was compared and examined under the effect of variable frequency and intensity of grazing. The cultivars were compared with ‘Pennlate’ orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.), a productive grass during the summer, in two grazing experiments in 3 yr. Pre‐grazing herbage samples were analyzed and compared for crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and in vitro true digestibility of dry matter (IVTD). In both experiments, the average CP of entries was 180 to 200 g kg−1, similar to orchardgrass. The NDF of forbs, which ranged from 300 to 400 g kg−1, was 200 g kg−1 lower than orchardgrass. The IVTD of chicory cultivars averaged 850 to 950 g kg−1. In Exp. 1, ‘Forage Feast’ and ‘Puna’ chicory had the greatest IVTD (5% greater than orchardgrass: average 911 vs. 867 g kg−1, respectively; P &lt; 0.05). Lancelot plantain had the lowest IVTD in both experiments. Grazing management (frequency of grazing) affected nutritive value in Exp. 1 but not in Exp. 2. Although herbage composition in Exp. 2 varied, continuous reproductive development did not affect nutritive value. Managing Puna chicory and Lancelot plantain using a canopy‐height based grazing system to maximize yield and persistence does not compromise nutritive value. Puna chicory could be a good complement to Pennlate orchardgrass in grass‐based feeding systems.

Productivity of Chicory and Plantain Cultivars under Grazing

The bimodal distribution of growth of cool‐season grass species generates an imbalance in the amount of forage available during the summer, which could be improved by using alternative forage species. Several chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) and plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.) cultivars were evaluated for such purpose and contrasted against ‘Pennlate’ orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.) under different grazing strategies in two experiments during 3 yr. In Exp. 1, ‘Grasslands Puna’ chicory and Pennlate orchardgrass achieved similar dry matter (DM) yields during spring (6500 vs. 7250 kg DM ha−1, respectively) and summer (3350 vs. 3900 kg DM ha−1, respectively). Between plantain cultivars, yields similar to Pennlate orchardgrass were achieved by ‘Grasslands Lancelot’ (7350 kg DM ha−1) in spring and by ‘Ceres Tonic’ (3150 kg DM ha−1) in summer. Grazing every 3 wk vs. 5 wk reduced DM yield in summer (1650 vs. 4450 kg DM ha−1, P &lt; 0.001). In Exp. 2, spring DM yields of Puna chicory were greater than those of Pennlate orchardgrass (5750 vs. 3600 kg DM ha−1, average yield over years; P &lt; 0.05). In summer, DM yield of Puna chicory relative to that of Pennlate orchardgrass varied between years. Yield of Lancelot plantain decreased during 2000 and 2001 following decreases in plant density. Our results suggest that most cultivars tested may not increase forage availability during the summer, which may be related to plant density losses. Of all cultivars, Puna chicory appeared as the most promising. Due to very low plant survival, the plantain cultivars tested may not be appropriate for perennial pastures in northeastern USA.

Forage Yield and Persistence of Chicory and English Plantain

Graziers in the northeast USA often face forage shortages in midsummer. Chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) and English plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.) have been introduced in the USA as sumer‐active perennial herbs for pastures. We conducted two experiments at Rock Springs, PA, to evaluate chicory and plantain for yield and persistence under clipping. ‘Grasslands Puna’, ‘Lacerta’, and ‘Forage Feast’ chicory, and ‘Ceres Tonic’ and ‘Grasslands Lancelot’ plantain were sown in field plots in May 1997 (Exp. 1) and 1999 (Exp. 2). Plots were cut every 3 or 5 wk in 1998 and 1999 in Exp. 1 and every 4 wk during 2000 and 2001 in Exp. 2. Dry matter yield was determined at each harvest. Stand densities were determined in each experiment. Forage Feast chicory yielded 25% less than Puna (6000 vs. 8100 kg dry matter ha−1; P &lt; 0.05) in 1998, whereas yields of both cultivars were similar (P &gt; 0.05) in 1999 and 2000. Lacerta chicory yielded 9 to 16% less than Puna and Forage Feast in Exp. 2. Forage Feast and Puna chicory had 20 to 50% stand loss in Exp. 1 and 40 to 60% stand loss in Exp. 2. Lacerta chicory lost 80% of the stand during Exp. 2. The plantain cultivars yielded 6 to 14% less dry matter than Puna chicory in 1998 and 33 to 39% less in 2000. Both plantain cultivars, however, suffered a nearly complete loss of plants during the second winter after establishment in both experiments. Ceres Tonic and Lancelot plantain are not suited for the northeastern USA.

Forage Yield and Persistence of Chicory and English Plantain

Graziers in the northeast USA often face forage shortages in midsummer. Chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) and English plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.) have been introduced in the USA as sumer-active perennial herbs for pastures. We conducted two experiments at Rock Springs, PA, to evaluate chicory and plantain for yield and persistence under clipping. ‘Grasslands Puna’, ‘Lacerta’, and ‘Forage Feast’ chicory, and ‘Ceres Tonic’ and ‘Grasslands Lancelot’ plantain were sown in field plots in May 1997 (Exp. 1) and 1999 (Exp. 2). Plots were cut every 3 or 5 wk in 1998 and 1999 in Exp. 1 and every 4 wk during 2000 and 2001 in Exp. 2. Dry matter yield was determined at each harvest. Stand densities were determined in each experiment. Forage Feast chicory yielded 25% less than Puna (6000 vs. 8100 kg dry matter ha−1; P < 0.05) in 1998, whereas yields of both cultivars were similar (P > 0.05) in 1999 and 2000. Lacerta chicory yielded 9 to 16% less than Puna and Forage Feast in Exp. 2. Forage Feast and Puna chicory had 20 to 50% stand loss in Exp. 1 and 40 to 60% stand loss in Exp. 2. Lacerta chicory lost 80% of the stand during Exp. 2. The plantain cultivars yielded 6 to 14% less dry matter than Puna chicory in 1998 and 33 to 39% less in 2000. Both plantain cultivars, however, suffered a nearly complete loss of plants during the second winter after establishment in both experiments. Ceres Tonic and Lancelot plantain are not suited for the northeastern USA.

Freezing Tolerance of Chicory and Narrow‐Leaf Plantain

ABSTRACT‘Ceres Tonic’ and ‘Grasslands Lancelot’ narrow‐leaf plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.) and ‘Grasslands Puna’ chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) have received considerable interest as potential new forages for the northeastern USA because of their reported drought tolerance and high forage quality. However, all three cultivars were developed under New Zealand conditions and may not have sufficient winter hardiness to survive northeastern USA winters. Growth chamber and field studies were conducted to determine the freezing tolerance and winter survival of these new forages under well‐watered and drought conditions. Winter survival of chicory in the field ranged from 73% of marked plants in the wet treatment to 93% following summer drought. Likewise, winter survival of plantain in the field increased from 3% in the wet treatment to 41% in the dry treatment. Survival of Lancelot plantain in the growth chamber increased from 4% in the well‐watered to 16% in the drought treatment. However, survival of Tonic plantain and Puna chicory in the growth chamber was not affected by drought. Chicory survival was greater than survival of plantain in both controlled and field environments. Puna chicory appears to have sufficient winter hardiness to survive winters in the northeastern United States. Although Lancelot had slightly greater survival than Tonic, neither plantain cultivar had sufficient freezing tolerance to be recommended for use in the northeastern USA. Improved cultivars will need to be developed from populations that have evolved under more severe winter conditions before plantain can become a viable forage for most of this region.

Comparison of ‘Grasslands Puna’ Chicory and Orchardgrass for Multiple Harvests at Different Management Levels

The objective was to compare the nutrient composition of ‘Grasslands Puna’ chicory (Puna) (Cichorium intybus L.) and ‘Pennlate’ orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.) at different levels of harvesting management. The two herbages were harvested multiple times at three different management levels, intense, moderate, and lenient, corresponding to chicory canopy management levels of 25, 37, and 50 cm, and clipped to a 5‐cm stubble height. The experimental design was a 2 × 3 (species × management) factorial with five replications. Nitrogen was applied after each harvest except the last harvest of the season. Herbages were freeze‐dried and ground prior to analyses for organic matter (OM), acid‐detergent fiber (ADF), neutral‐detergent fiber (NDF), nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC), crude protein (CP), degradable protein (DP), and soluble protein (SP). Organic matter, ADF, and NDF concentrations were lower (P &lt; 0.05) in chicory than in orchardgrass in both years. Chicory herbage contained less than 5 g kg−1 hemicellulose. Orchardgrass had less (P &lt; 0.05) DP than chicory in 1992 but not in 1993. Increasing intensity of management (lenient, moderate, or intense) resulted in increased CP, SP, and DP during both 1992 and 1993. Overall, Puna chicory was a high‐quality forage, equal to or better than orchardgrass in quality under these harvest conditions.

Seedling Development of Chicory and Plantain

Chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) and plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.) are perennial herbs for pastures. Knowledge of growth and development of these species is needed to develop appropriate management practices. We compared growth and development of chicory and plantain during establishment in growth chamber, greenhouse, and field studies. ‘Grasslands Puna’, ‘La Certa’, and ‘Forage Feast’ chicory and ‘Ceres Tonic’ and ‘Grasslands Lancelot’ plantain seedlings were destructively sampled weekly for 7 wk in the growth chamber and greenhouse beginning 8 to10 days after planting (DAP). The number and mass of leaves and roots (primary, lateral, basal, and adventitious; growth chamber only) were recorded. In the field, leaf development was measured during spring and fall of 1997, whereas leaf and root development were measured during spring of 1999. Puna chicory developed a larger root mass than plantains, whereas plantains had greater root length than chicory. Plantains developed 8 to 10 adventitious roots on the hypocotyl, but the chicory cultivars developed only one or two. Plantain and chicory developed only one or two basal roots per plant. Primary and lateral roots dominated the root systems of both species. Leaf development in fall 1997 was slower than in spring with only two leaves forming on each species by 49 DAP in fall compared with six to seven leaves during spring in the field. Across environments (except fall), seedlings developed three to four leaves by 40 to 50 DAP. Our data suggest that development of three to four leaves is required for successful establishment of chicory and plantain seedlings.

The feeding value of chicory (Cichorium intybus) for ruminant livestock

Chicory (Cichorium intybus) is perhaps best known for the extract of its roots used as an ingredient in ‘coffee substitute’ beverages. It is less well known as a grazed forage for ruminants. Thomas et al. (1952) reported the high content of some major and minor trace minerals in chicory grown in the UK, and commented on its use in pasture mixtures as a source of these minerals. Chicory was first mentioned in New Zealand (NZ) literature as an animal forage by Cockayne (1915), but a long period then elapsed before Lancashire (1978) reported its excellent value for forage production under rotational grazing in dry summer conditions. Plant selection then followed and the cultivar ‘Grasslands Puna’ was approved for commercial release as a grazed forage plant in 1985 (Rumball 1986). The use of Puna chicory has now spread throughout NZ and the variety is also being used commercially in Australia, North America and South America and is being evaluated in parts of Europe and Asia (W. Green, personal communication). Chicory is a herb, whereas other temperate forages used for ruminant production are either grasses or legumes. This paper reviews work on the chemical composition, nutritive value and feeding value of chicory relative to perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) and to red clover (Trifolium pratense), a legume that, like chicory, is used as a forage for dry summer conditions. Throughout this paper, feeding value is defined as the animal production response to grazing a forage under unrestricted conditions (Ulyatt 1973), with its components being voluntary feed intake (VFI), the digestive process and the efficiency of utilization of digested nutrients; the latter two comprise nutritive value/dry matter (DM) eaten.

Morphological development of forage chicory under defoliation in the field and glasshouse

Four field and 2 glasshouse experiments were carried out to study the morphological development of forage chicory under defoliation from 1993 to 1996 at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. ‘Grasslands Puna’ chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) was used in all experiments except the last one, where 3 cultivars, ‘Grasslands Puna’, ‘PG90’, and ‘Orchies’, were compared. Puna chicory produced 2 separate growths from the crown, one in spring and the other in autumn, when left ungrazed. Defoliation stimulated the development of secondary shoots but suppressed the development of the primary shoot. Axillary shoots, however, developed fully regardless of whether plants were defoliated. The main source of feed from chicory for livestock was primary leaves during spring, and secondary and axillary leaves during summer and autumn. Orchies produced more primary leaves than Puna an PG90 because it had a larger crown, but there were no differences in the number of secondary shoots among cultivars. The development of axillary shoots varied with cultivars.

Chicory for milk production

The 1997-98 season has seen a marked increase in the amount of chicory planted on dairy farms in New Zealand. However, no New Zealand data are available for milk production from dairy cows grazing chicory. As part of a larger trial examining the effect of summer forage crops on milk production, Grasslands Puna chicory was compared with Barkant turnips. In January and March 1998, grazing trials were conducted at No.1 Dairy, Dairying Research Corporation using 60 lactating twin cows. In January, chicory and turnips were break-fed at a constant allowance (4 kg DM/cow/ day) to supplement pasture offered at 3 allowances (15, 27.5 and 40 kg DM/cow/day). In March, these crops were fed at 3 levels (0, 4 and 8 kg DM/cow/ day) to supplement pasture offered at a constant allowance of 25 kg DM/cow/day. Chicory and turnips gave similar milksolids (MS) responses of 40-41 g MS/kg DM offered in January. Milksolids responses in March were higher for turnips, 34 g MS/kg DM vs 32 g MS/kg DM from chicory. In January and March the size of the milksolids response declined with increasing allowance. This could be attributed to an increasing amount of substitution at higher allowances. Chicory produced between 8.8 and 13.8 t DM/ha from 4 October to 10 March, offering a high quality summer-autumn forage crop and improved milk production when supplemented with pasture. Keywords: chicory, Cichorium intybus, pasture allowance, dairy cows, milk production, forage crops, turnips, milksolids

Regrowth, morphology and persistence of Grasslands Puna chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) in response to grazing frequency and intensity

Effects of different grazing frequencies and intensities on herbage production (on both a unit pasture and individual plant basis) and on persistence of chicory (Cichorium intybus L. cv. Grasslands Puna) were studied at Palmerston North, New Zealand (latitude 40°23′S) from November 1994 to November 1995. Three experiments were conducted on the same chicory stand, sown on 12 May 1994. The main grazing experiment had two grazing intensities, hard‐lax grazing (50‐ to 100‐mm stem stubble to mid‐January, and thereafter 100‐ to 150‐mm stem stubble) and lax grazing (100‐ to 150‐mm stem stubble), and three grazing frequencies (1‐, 2‐ or 4‐week intervals). A subsidiary plant survival experiment compared the survival of 120 marked plants in ungrazed and grazed treatments. A late autumn grazing experiment examined the effects on plant persistence in the following spring. The greatest herbage mass (leaf + stem) resulted from the 4‐week grazing frequency [9640 ± 874 kg dry matter (DM) ha−1], in which stem mass was reasonably low (1270 ± 410 kg DM ha−1), but was significantly higher in the 4‐week grazing frequency than 1‐ and 2‐week grazing frequencies (P &lt; 0·01). Grazing intensity had no significant effect except on the average stem mass of individual plants when the hard‐lax intensity gave a lower stem mass (P &lt; 0·01). There were no interactions between grazing frequency and intensity in herbage mass. Plant density declined by 35% over the growing season with the decline unaffected by grazing intensity or frequency during the season. Grazing in late autumn resulted in approximately 27% less plants the following spring. It was concluded that grazing management through the growing season cannot be used to improve persistence without compromising leaf growth rate, but that avoidance of grazing late autumn will improve the persistence of chicory.

Herbage production and persistence of Puna chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) under grazing management over 4 years

Three grazing experiments were conducted at the Pasture and Crop Research Unit (PCRU) and Deer Research Unit (DRU), Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand, from November 1993 to January 1996. Experiments 1 and 3 examined effects of grazing frequency and grazing intensity on the herbage production and persistence on year 1 and year 4 chicory stands, respectively. In Experiment 2, the plant density and plant size (shoots/plant) were monitored over 3 years starting from the second growing season. Results showed that year 1 and year 2 chicory accumulated 8460 + 668 and 9360 ± 640 kg DM/ha over 6 months, which was double that of year 4 chicory (4590 ± 343 kg DM/ha). The average plant densities for year 1 and year 2 chicory were 66 ± 2.1 and 68 ± 4.0 plants/m2, respectively, significantly higher than those for year 3 and year 4 chicory of 49 ± 0.6 and 24 ± 1.3 plants/m2, respectively. However, plant size increased from 2.9 ± 0.04 and 2.7 ± 0.15 shoots/plant for the first 2 years to 4.1 ±0.15 and 6.7 ± 0.21 shoots/plant in year 3 and year 4, respectively. It was concluded that the characteristics of a grazed chicory crop that had deteriorated to the point of not being able to produce half of its maximum herbage mass were 25 plants/m2, six or more shoots/plant, or less than 150 shoots/m2. The implications for chicory grazing management are also discussed.

Forage Production and Grazing Management of Chicory

'Grasslands Puna' chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) is a perennial cool-season herb developed as a forage in New Zealand. The objective of this study was to evaluate forage production potential and rotational grazing strategies for chicory grown in central Oklahoma. Pastures were established on two soil types and grazed for 2 yr with 3 rotational strategies described as fast (13 d rest periods), moderate (27 d rest periods), and slow (38 d rest periods). Chicory plant density during the seeding year was higher on a silt loam (4.5 plants/sq ft) than on a silty clay loam soil (2.2 plants/sq ft; P < 0.05). By the second year, however, natural reseeding resulted in equally dense stands on both soil types (4.3 plants/sq ft). Moderate and slow rotational grazing resulted in significantly greater (P < 0.05) amounts of harvested forage (7050 Iblacre) compared with the fast rotational treatment (5890 Iblacre). Fewer chicory plants bolted under the fast rotation; however, it is likely that this treatment did not allow adequate time for substantial leaf area accumulation and regrowth. Crude protein (CP) content of chicory averaged 18.3% and in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) averaged 70.9%. Chicory appears to have potential as a productive and high quality cool-season forage crop in Oklahoma.