Pulmonary Immune Cells Research Articles

Single-cell transcriptomic analysis reveals the commonality of immune response upon H1N1 influenza virus infection in mice and humans

Seasonal influenza A virus (IAV), particularly the H1N1 subtype, poses a significant public health threat because of its substantial morbidity and mortality rates worldwide. Understanding the immune response to H1N1 is crucial for developing effective treatments and vaccines. In this study, we deciphered the single-cell transcriptomic landscape of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from H1N1-infected humans and lung tissue samples from H1N1-infected mice by mining HIN1-related single-cell RNA sequencing data from the GEO database. We observed similar changes in immune cell composition following H1N1 infection, with an increase in macrophages but a decrease in T cells in both species. Moreover, significant transcriptional changes in bystander immune cells upon H1N1 infection were identified, with the upregulation of the chemokine CCL2 in human PBMCs and increased expression of interferon-stimulated genes such as Ifit3, Ifit1 and Isg15 in mouse pulmonary immune cells. Intercellular cross-talk analysis highlighted enhanced interactions among bystander immune cells during H1N1 infection, with neutrophils in humans and macrophages in mice showing the most remarkable increases in interaction intensity. Transcription factor analysis revealed the conserved upregulation of key antiviral regulons, including STAT1 and IRF7, in T cells across both species, highlighting their pivotal roles in antiviral defense. These results suggest that humans and mice exhibit common immune responses to H1N1 infection, underscoring the similarity of vital immune mechanisms across species. The conserved immune mechanisms identified in this study provide potential therapeutic targets for enhancing antiviral immunity. Our research underscores the importance of understanding species-specific and conserved immune responses to H1N1 and offers insights that could inform the development of novel antiviral therapies and improve clinical outcomes for individuals affected by influenza.

The Role of Retinoic-Acid-Related Orphan Receptor (RORs) in Cellular Homeostasis

Retinoic-acid-related orphan receptors (RORs) are transcription factors belonging to the nuclear receptor subfamily consisting of RORα, RORβ, and RORγ. By binding to the ROR response elements (ROREs) on target gene promoters, RORs regulate a wide variety of cellular processes, including autophagy, mitophagy, oxidative stress, and inflammation. The regulatory roles of RORs are observed in cardiac cells, hepatocytes, pulmonary epithelial cells, renal cells, immune cells, and cancer cells. A growing body of clinical and experimental evidence suggests that ROR expression levels are markedly reduced under different pathological and stress conditions, suggesting that RORs may play a critical role in the pathogenesis of a variety of disease states, including myocardial infarction, immune disorders, cancer, and metabolic syndrome. Reductions in RORs are also associated with inhibition of autophagy, increased reactive oxygen species (ROS), and increased cell death, underscoring the importance of RORs in the regulation of these processes. Herein, we highlight the relationship between RORs and homeostatic processes that influence cell viability. Understanding how these intricate processes are governed at the cellular level is of high scientific and clinical importance to develop new therapeutic strategies that modulate ROR expression and disease progression.

MICROSCOPIC ARCHITECTURE OF THE RESPIRATORY AND CONDUCTING SYSTEM OF THE LUNG OF NILE MONITOR

Using semi-thin sections, the present investigation examined the microscopic characteristics of the lungs of the Nile monitor (Varanus niloticus). The lungs were composed of Intrapulmonary conducting airways and respiratory faveoli. Intrapulmonary airways originate from the terminal portion of the bronchus, which extends into the lung to create the bronchial tree. The bronchus was lined with pseudostratified ciliated epithelium composed of both ciliated and non-ciliated cells, and it was supported by plates of hyaline cartilage. The central lumen is surrounded by contractile fibers that contain smooth muscle cell bundles and are covered by ciliated and non-ciliated cells. The central lumen communicates with the faveoli. Separating adjacent faveoli are pulmonary trabeculae covered with various cell types, including type I pneumocytes, type II pneumocytes, and pulmonary macrophages. Some substantial pulmonary bronchi were also supported by small cartilage plate granules and lined with ciliated epithelium. Type I pneumocytes were flat cells, whereas type II pneumocytes had cuboidal cells with vacuolated cytoplasm. Surface irregularity and vacuolated cytoplasm were features of pulmonary macrophages. In addition, the connective tissue of the pulmonary septa contained immune cells, such as Mast and Eosinophils. In conclusion, the microstructure of the lung of the Nile monitor closely resembles that of other reptile species. However, the distinction between intrapulmonary cartilage palates and pulmonary septa raises the concept of species differentiation. In addition, the discovery of various types of pulmonary immune cells enhances the Nile monitor's ability to persist in a variety of environments by enhancing its pulmonary immunity.

Pulmonary and Systemic Immune Profiles Following Lung Volume Reduction Surgery and Allogeneic Mesenchymal Stromal Cell Treatment in Emphysema.

Emphysema in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by progressive inflammation. Preclinical studies suggest that lung volume reduction surgery (LVRS) and mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC) treatment dampen inflammation. We investigated the effects of bone marrow-derived MSC (BM-MSC) and LVRS on circulating and pulmonary immune cell profiles in emphysema patients using mass cytometry. Blood and resected lung tissue were collected at the first LVRS (L1). Following 6-10 weeks of recovery, patients received a placebo or intravenous administration of 2 × 106 cells/kg bodyweight BM-MSC (n = 5 and n = 9, resp.) in week 3 and 4 before the second LVRS (L2), where blood and lung tissue were collected. Irrespective of BM-MSC or placebo treatment, proportions of circulating lymphocytes including central memory CD4 regulatory, effector memory CD8 and γδ T cells were higher, whereas myeloid cell percentages were lower in L2 compared to L1. In resected lung tissue, proportions of Treg (p = 0.0067) and anti-inflammatory CD163- macrophages (p = 0.0001) were increased in L2 compared to L1, while proportions of pro-inflammatory CD163+ macrophages were decreased (p = 0.0004). There were no effects of BM-MSC treatment on immune profiles in emphysema patients. However, we observed alterations in the circulating and pulmonary immune cells upon LVRS, suggesting the induction of anti-inflammatory responses potentially needed for repair processes.

Age-dependent changes in phagocytic activity: in vivo response of mouse pulmonary antigen presenting cells to direct lung delivery of charged PEGDA nanoparticles

BackgroundCurrent needle-based vaccination for respiratory viruses is ineffective at producing sufficient, long-lasting local immunity in the elderly. Direct pulmonary delivery to the resident local pulmonary immune cells can create long-term mucosal responses. However, criteria for drug vehicle design rules that can overcome age-specific changes in immune cell functions have yet to be established.ResultsHere, in vivo charge-based nanoparticle (NP) uptake was compared in mice of two age groups (2- and 16-months) within the four notable pulmonary antigen presenting cell (APC) populations: alveolar macrophages (AM), interstitial macrophages (IM), CD103+ dendritic cells (DCs), and CD11b+ DCs. Both macrophage populations exhibited preferential uptake of anionic nanoparticles but showed inverse rates of phagocytosis between the AM and IM populations across age. DC populations demonstrated preferential uptake of cationic nanoparticles, which remarkably did not significantly change in the aged group. Further characterization of cell phenotypes post-NP internalization demonstrated unique surface marker expression and activation levels for each APC population, showcasing heightened DC inflammatory response to NP delivery in the aged group.ConclusionThe age of mice demonstrated significant preferences in the charge-based NP uptake in APCs that differed greatly between macrophages and DCs. Carefully balance of the targeting and activation of specific types of pulmonary APCs will be critical to produce efficient, age-based vaccines for the growing elderly population.Graphical

Potential role of alveolar macrophages in HIV persistence and lung disease

While antiretroviral therapy (ART) has revolutionized the management of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and has enabled people living with HIV (PLWH) to achieve near-normal life expectancies, an HIV cure remains elusive due to the presence of HIV reservoirs. Furthermore, compared with individuals in the general population, PLWH support a higher burden of multimorbidity, including pulmonary diseases of both an infectious and non-infection nature, which may be a consequence of the formation of HIV reservoirs. Their gut, lymph nodes, brain, testes and lungs constitute important anatomic sites for the reservoirs. While CD4+ T-cells, and particularly memory CD4+ T-cells, are the best characterized cellular HIV reservoirs, tissue resident macrophages (TRM) and alveolar macrophages (AM) also harbor HIV infection. AM are the most abundant cells in bronchoalveolar (BAL) fluid in healthy conditions, and act as sentinels in the alveolar space by patrolling and clearing debris, microbes and surfactant recycling. Long-lived tissue-resident AM of embryonic origin have the capacity of self-renewal without replenishment from peripheral monocytes. As in other tissues, close cell-cell contacts in lungs also provide a milieu conducive for cell-to-cell spread of HIV infection and establishment of reservoirs. As lungs are in constant exposure to antigens from the external environment, this situation contributes to pro-inflammatory phenotype rendering pulmonary immune cells exhausted and senescent-an environment facilitating HIV persistence. Factors such as tobacco and e-cigarette smoking, lung microbiome dysbiosis and respiratory co-infections further drive antigenic stimulation and HIV replication. HIV replication, in turn, contributes to ongoing inflammation and clonal expansion. Herein, the potential role of AM in HIV persistence is discussed. Furthermore, their contribution towards pulmonary inflammation and immune dysregulation, which may in turn render PLWH susceptible to chronic lung disease, despite ART, is explored. Finally, strategies to eliminate HIV-infected AM are discussed.

Potential role of alveolar macrophages in HIV persistence and lung disease.

While antiretroviral therapy (ART) has revolutionized the management of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and has enabled people living with HIV (PLWH) to achieve near-normal life expectancies, an HIV cure remains elusive due to the presence of HIV reservoirs. Furthermore, compared with individuals in the general population, PLWH support a higher burden of multimorbidity, including pulmonary diseases of both an infectious and non-infection nature, which may be a consequence of the formation of HIV reservoirs. Their gut, lymph nodes, brain, testes and lungs constitute important anatomic sites for the reservoirs. While CD4+ T cells, and particularly memory CD4+ T cells, are the best characterized cellular HIV reservoirs, tissue resident macrophages (TRM) and alveolar macrophages (AM) also harbor HIV infection. AM are the most abundant cells in bronchoalveolar (BAL) fluid in healthy conditions, and act as sentinels in the alveolar space by patrolling and clearing debris, microbes and surfactant recycling. Long-lived tissue-resident AM of embryonic origin have the capacity of self-renewal without replenishment from peripheral monocytes. As in other tissues, close cell-cell contacts in lungs also provide a milieu conducive for cell-to-cell spread of HIV infection and establishment of reservoirs. As lungs are in constant exposure to antigens from the external environment, this situation contributes to pro-inflammatory phenotype rendering pulmonary immune cells exhausted and senescent-an environment facilitating HIV persistence. Factors such as tobacco and e-cigarette smoking, lung microbiome dysbiosis and respiratory coinfections further drive antigenic stimulation and HIV replication. HIV replication, in turn, contributes to ongoing inflammation and clonal expansion. Herein, the potential role of AM in HIV persistence is discussed. Furthermore, their contribution towards pulmonary inflammation and immune dysregulation, which may in turn render PLWH susceptible to chronic lung disease, despite ART, is explored. Finally, strategies to eliminate HIV-infected AM are discussed.

Dual Role of microRNA-146a in Experimental Inflammation in Human Pulmonary Epithelial and Immune Cells and Expression in Inflammatory Lung Diseases.

microRNA (miR)-146a emerges as a promising post-transcriptional regulator in various inflammatory diseases with different roles for the two isoforms miR-146a-5p and miR-146a-3p. The present study aimed to examine the dual role of miR-146a-5p and miR-146a 3p in the modulation of inflammation in human pulmonary epithelial and immune cells in vitro as well as their expression in patients with inflammatory lung diseases. Experimental inflammation in human A549, HL60, and THP1 via the NF-kB pathway resulted in the major upregulation of miR-146a-5p and miR-146a-3p expression, which was partly cell-specific. Modulation by transfection with miRNA mimics and inhibitors demonstrated an anti-inflammatory effect of miR-146a-5p and a pro-inflammatory effect of miR-146a-3p, respectively. A mutual interference between miR-146a-5p and miR-146a-3p was observed, with miR-146a-5p exerting a predominant influence. In vivo NGS analyses revealed an upregulation of miR-146a-3p in the blood of patients with cystic fibrosis and bronchiolitis obliterans, while miR-146a-5p levels were downregulated or unchanged compared to controls. The reverse pattern was observed in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. In conclusion, miR-146a-5p and miR-146a-3p are two distinct but interconnected miRNA isoforms with opposing functions in inflammation regulation. Understanding their interaction provides important insights into the progression and persistence of inflammatory lung diseases and might provide potential therapeutic options.

Quaternization drives spleen-to-lung tropism conversion for mRNA-loaded lipid-like nanoassemblies.

Background: As the overwhelming majority of advanced mRNA delivery systems are preferentially accumulated in the liver, there is an accelerating growth in the demand for the development of non-liver mRNA delivery platforms. Methods: In this study, we prepared cationic lipid-like nanoassemblies through a N-quaternizing strategy. Their physicochemical properties, in vitro mRNA delivery efficiency, and organ tropism in mice were investigated. Results: Introduction of quaternary ammonium groups onto lipid-like nanoassemblies not only enhances their mRNA delivery performance in vitro, but also completely alters their tropism from the spleen to the lung after intravenous administration in mice. Quaternized lipid-like nanoassemblies exhibit ultra-high specificity to the lung and are predominantly taken up by pulmonary immune cells, leading to over 95% of exogenous mRNA translation in the lungs. Such mRNA delivery carriers are stable even after more than one-year storage at ambient temperature. Conclusions: Quaternization provides an alternative method for design of new lung-targeted mRNA delivery systems without incorporation of targeting ligands, which should extend the therapeutic applicability of mRNA to lung diseases.

Distinct gene expression signatures comparing latent tuberculosis infection with different routes of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin vaccination

Tuberculosis remains an international health threat partly because of limited protection from pulmonary tuberculosis provided by standard intradermal vaccination with Bacillus of Calmette and Guérin (BCG); this may reflect the inability of intradermal vaccination to optimally induce pulmonary immunity. In contrast, respiratory Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection usually results in the immune-mediated bacillary containment of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI). Here we present RNA-Seq-based assessments of systemic and pulmonary immune cells from LTBI participants and recipients of intradermal and oral BCG. LTBI individuals uniquely display ongoing immune activation and robust CD4 T cell recall responses in blood and lung. Intradermal BCG is associated with robust systemic immunity but only limited pulmonary immunity. Conversely, oral BCG induces limited systemic immunity but distinct pulmonary responses including enhanced inflammasome activation potentially associated with mucosal-associated invariant T cells. Further, IL-9 is identified as a component of systemic immunity in LTBI and intradermal BCG, and pulmonary immunity following oral BCG.

Microphysiological Models of Lung Epithelium-Alveolar Macrophage Co-Cultures to Study Chronic Lung Disease.

The interactions between immune cells and epithelial cells influence the progression of many respiratory diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). In vitro models allow for the examination of cells in controlled environments. However, these models lack the complex 3D architecture and vast multicellular interactions between the lung resident cells and infiltrating immune cells that can mediate cellular response to insults. In this study, three complementary microphysiological systems are presented to delineate the effects of cigarette smoke and respiratory disease on the lung epithelium. First, the Transwell system allows the co-culture of pulmonary immune and epithelial cells to evaluate cellular and monolayer phenotypic changes in response to cigarette smoke exposure. Next, the human and mouse precision-cut lung slices system provides a physiologically relevant model to study the effects of chronic insults like cigarette smoke with the dissection of specific interaction of immune cell subtypes within the structurally complex tissue environment. Finally, the lung-on-a-chip model provides an adaptable system for live imaging of polarized epithelial tissues that mimic the in vivo environment of the airways. Using a combination of these models, a complementary approach is provided to better address the intricate mechanisms of lung disease.

Cross-species comparison illuminates the importance of iron homeostasis for splenic anti-immunosenescence.

Although immunosenescence may result in increased morbidity and mortality, many mammals have evolved effective immune coping strategies to extend their lifespans. Thus, the immune systems of long-lived mammals present unique models to study healthy longevity. To identify the molecular clues of anti-immunosenescence, we first built high-quality reference genome for a long-lived myotis bat, and then compared three long-lived mammals (i.e., bat, naked mole rat, and human) versus the short-lived mammal, mouse, in splenic immune cells at single-cell resolution. A close relationship between B:T cell ratio and immunosenescence was detected, as B:T cell ratio was much higher in mouse than long-lived mammals and significantly increased during aging. Importantly, we identified several iron-related genes that could resist immunosenescence changes, especially the iron chaperon, PCBP1, which was upregulated in long-lived mammals but dramatically downregulated during aging in all splenic immune cell types. Supportively, immune cells of mouse spleens contained more free iron than those of bat spleens, suggesting higher level of ROS-induced damage in mouse. PCBP1 downregulation during aging was also detected in hepatic but not pulmonary immune cells, which is consistent with the crucial roles of spleen and liver in organismal iron recycling. Furthermore, PCBP1 perturbation in immune cell lines would result in cellular iron dyshomeostasis and senescence. Finally, we identified two transcription factors that could regulate PCBP1 during aging. Together, our findings highlight the importance of iron homeostasis in splenic anti-immunosenescence, and provide unique insight for improving human healthspan.

Integrated Analysis of Tracheobronchial Fluid from Before and After Cardiopulmonary Bypass Reveals Activation of the Integrated Stress Response and Altered Pulmonary Microvascular Permeability.

Objective: We aim to comprehensively describe the transcriptional activity and signaling of pulmonary parenchymal and immune cells before and after cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) by using a multi-omic approach coupled with functional cellular assays. We hypothesize that key signaling pathways from specific cells within the lung alter pulmonary endothelial cell function resulting in worsening or improving disease. Methods: We collected serial tracheobronchial lavage samples from intubated patients less than 2-years-old undergoing surgery with CPB. Samples were immediately processed for single cell RNA sequencing (10x Genomics). Cell clustering, cell-type annotation, and visualization were performed, and differentially expressed genes (DEG) between serial samples were identified. Metabolomic and proteomic analyses were performed on the supernatant using mass spectrometry and a multiplex assay (SomaScan) respectively. Functional assays were done using electric cell-substrate impedance sensing to measure resistance across human pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (HPMECs). Results: Analysis of eight patients showed a heterogeneous mixture of pulmonary parenchymal and immune cells. Cell clustering demonstrated time-dependent changes in the transcriptomic signature indicating altered cellular phenotypes after CPB. DEG analysis was represented by genes involved in host defense, innate immunity, and the mitochondrial respiratory transport chain. Ingenuity pathway analysis showed upregulation of the integrated stress response across all cell types after CPB. Metabolomic analysis demonstrated upregulation of ascorbate and aldarate metabolism. Unbiased proteomic analysis revealed upregulation of proteins involved in cytokine and chemokine pathways. Post-CPB patient supernatant improved HMPEC barrier function, suggesting a protective cellular response to CPB. Conclusion: Children who undergo CPB for cardiac surgery have distinct cell populations, transcriptional activity, and metabolism that change over time. The response to ischemia-reperfusion injury in the lower airway of children appears to be protective, with the need to identify potential targets through future investigations.

Influenza viral matrix 1 protein aggravates viral pathogenicity by inducing TLR4-mediated reactive oxygen species production and apoptotic cell death

Influenza virus is one of the most challenging viruses threating human health. Since infection with influenza virus triggers inflammatory responses and induces cell death, the molecular and cellular mechanisms by which the virus-infected cells undergo apoptotic and necrotic cell death have been widely studied. However, most of the studies have focused on the molecular events occurring in the cytosol and there is limited information on the physiological correlation between virus-induced cell death and the viral pathogenesis in vivo. In this study, we demonstrate that the influenza virus matrix 1 (M1) protein is released from virus-infected cells and triggers apoptotic cell death of lung epithelial and pulmonary immune cells, through the activation of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling. Treatment with M1 protein led to robust cellular inflammatory responses, such as the production of proinflammatory cytokines and cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), and induction of cell death. When M1 protein was administered in vivo, it induced the activation of inflammatory responses and cell death in the lungs. Furthermore, the administration of M1 aggravated lung pathology and mortality of the virus-infected mice in a TLR4-dependent manner. These results demonstrate that M1 is an important pathogenic factor contributing to influenza virus pathogenicity by enhancing cell death in the lungs, thereby expanding our understanding of the molecular mechanism of influenza virus-induced cell death through the interaction with an innate immune receptor.

Pulmonary human immune responses in a humanized immune mouse model during influenza virus infection

<p>Human immune system is complex and differs significantly from that of model animals. To study the human immune system, particularly the local mucosal immune cells responding to infectious diseases, the humanized mouse model is a powerful tool. In this study, we established a humanized immune system (HIS) mouse model by transplanting CD34<sup>+</sup> hematopoietic stem cells from human umbilical cord blood into hIL7/hIL15 NDG mice. We successfully developed conventional human immune cells, including T cells, B cells, NK cells, monocytes, DCs and resident innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) in HIS mice. Following influenza A virus (IAV) infection, human pulmonary immune cells were activated and accumulated in the lungs. Single-cell sequencing data revealed that these immune cells functioned effectively in defending against viral infection by expressing cytotoxic cytokines and upregulating interferon-induced genes (ISGs). Furthermore, we identified human-specific genes that participated in regulating mucosal immune responses. Overall, hIL7/hIL15 HIS mice provide a useful model for studying human local immune responses against IAV in vivo.</p>

Memory-like innate lymphoid cells in the pathogenesis of asthma.

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are recently discovered innate immune cells that reside and self-renew in mucosal tissues and serve as the first line of defense against various external insults. They include natural killer (NK) cells, ILC1s, ILC2s, ILC3s, and lymphoid tissue inducer cells. The development and functions of ILC1-3 reflect those of their adaptive immunity TH1, TH2, and TH17 T-cell counterparts. Asthma is a heterogeneous disease caused by repeated exposure to specific allergens or host/environmental factors (e.g., obesity) that stimulate pathogenic pulmonary immune cells, including ILCs. Memory used to be a hallmark of adaptive immune cells until recent studies of monocytes, macrophages, and NK cells showed that innate immune cells can also exhibit greater responses to re-stimulation and that these more responsive cells can be long-lived. Besides, a series of studies suggest that the tissue-resident innate lymphoid cells have memory-like phenotypes, such as increased cytokine productions or epigenetic modifications following repetitive exposure to allergens. Notably, both clinical and mouse studies of asthma show that various allergens can generate memory-like features in ILC2s. Here, we discuss the biology of ILCs, their roles in asthma pathogenesis, and the evidence supporting ILC memory. We also show evidence suggesting memory ILCs could help drive the phenotypic heterogeneity in asthma. Thus, further research on memory ILCs may be fruitful in terms of developing new therapies for asthma.

Inducible general knockout of Runx3 profoundly reduces pulmonary cytotoxic CD8+ T cells with minimal effect on outcomes in mice following influenza infection.

Respiratory viruses pose a continuing and substantive threat to human health globally. Host innate and adaptive immune responses are the critical antiviral defense mechanisms to control viral replication and spread. The present study is designed to determine the role of transcription factor Runx3 in the host immune response to influenza A virus (IAV) infection. As Runx3 is required for embryonic development, we generated an inducible Runx3 global knockout (KO) mouse model and found that Runx3 KO in adult C57BL/6 mice minimally affected thymic function under normal conditions and survival was at least 250 days post Runx3 deletion. We applied the mouse model to IAV infection and found that Runx3 KO resulted in a huge reduction (>85%) in numbers of total and antigen-specific pulmonary CD8+ cytotoxic T cells during IAV infection, while it had a minor effect on pulmonary generation of CD4+ T cells. To our surprise, this general KO of Runx3 did not significantly alter viral clearance and animal survival following IAV infection. Interestingly, we found that Runx3 KO significantly increased the numbers of pulmonary innate immune cells such as macrophages and neutrophils and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines during IAV infection. We further found that Runx3 was strongly detected in CCR2+ immune cells in IAV-infected mouse lungs and was induced in activated macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs). As pulmonary CD8+ cytotoxic T cells play a central role in the clearance of IAV, our findings suggest that Runx3 KO may enhance host innate immunity to compensate for the loss of pulmonary CD8+ cytotoxic T cells during IAV infection.

Use of Clinical Isolates to Establish Criteria for a Mouse Model of Latent Cryptococcus neoformans Infection.

The mechanisms of latency in the context of C. neoformans infection remain poorly understood. Two reasons for this gap in knowledge are: 1) the lack of standardized criteria for defining latent cryptococcosis in animal models and 2) limited genetic and immunological tools available for studying host parameters against C. neoformans in non-murine models of persistent infection. In this study, we defined criteria required for latency in C. neoformans infection models and used these criteria to develop a murine model of persistent C. neoformans infection using clinical isolates. We analyzed infections with two clinical C. neoformans strains, UgCl223 and UgCl552, isolated from advanced HIV patients with cryptococcal meningitis. Our data show that the majority of C57BL/6 mice infected with the clinical C. neoformans isolates had persistent, stable infections with low fungal burden, survived beyond 90 days-post infection, exhibited weight gain, had no clinical signs of disease, and had yeast cells contained within pulmonary granulomas with no generalized alveolar inflammation. Infected mice exhibited stable relative frequencies of pulmonary immune cells during the course of the infection. Upon CD4+ T-cell depletion, the CD4DTR mice had significantly increased lung and brain fungal burden that resulted in lethal infection, indicating that CD4+ T-cells are important for control of the pulmonary infection and to prevent dissemination. Cells expressing the Tbet transcription factor were the predominant activated CD4 T-cell subset in the lungs during the latent infection. These Tbet-expressing T-cells had decreased IFNγ production, which may have implications in the capacity of the cells to orchestrate the pulmonary immune response. Altogether, these results indicate that clinical C. neoformans isolates can establish a persistent controlled infection that meets most criteria for latency; highlighting the utility of this new mouse model system for studies of host immune responses that control C. neoformans infections.

OASL1-Mediated Inhibition of Type I IFN Reduces Influenza A Infection-Induced Airway Inflammation by Regulating ILC2s.

PurposeThree observations drove this study. First, 2′-5′-oligoadenylate synthetase-like protein (OASL) is a negative regulator of type I interferon (IFN). Second, type I IFN plays a central role during virus infections and the pathogenesis of various diseases, including asthma. Third, influenza A virus (IAV) causes non-eosinophilic asthma. To evaluate the potential relationships between OASL, type I IFN, and pulmonary innate immune cells in IAV-induced acute airway inflammation by using Oasl1-/- mice.MethodsAsthma was induced in wild-type (WT) and Oasl1-/- mice with IAV or ovalbumin (OVA). Airway hyperreactivity (AHR) and immune cell infiltration in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluids were measured. The immune cells in the lungs were analyzed by flow cytometry. To investigate the ability of type I IFN to shape the response of lung type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s), IFN-α was treated intratracheally. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) sorted from bone marrow and ILC2s sorted from lungs of naive mice were co-cultured with/without interferon-alpha receptor subunit 1 (IFNAR-1)-blocking antibodies.ResultsIn the IAV-induced asthma model, Oasl1-/- mice developed greater AHR and immune cell infiltration in the BAL fluids than WT mice. This was not observed in OVA-induced asthma, a standard model of allergen-induced asthma. The lungs of infected Oasl1-/- mice also had elevated DC numbers and Ifna expression and depressed IAV-induced ILC2 responses, namely, proliferation and type 2 cytokine and amphiregulin production. Intratracheal administration of type I IFN in naïve mice suppressed lung ILC2 production of type 2 cytokines and amphiregulin. Co-culture of ILC2s with pDCs showed that pDCs inhibit the function of ILC2s by secreting type I IFN.ConclusionsOASL1 may impede the IAV-induced acute airway inflammation that drives AHR by inhibiting IAV-induced type I IFN production from lung DCs, thereby preserving the functions of lung ILC2s, including their amphiregulin production.

Extracellular Vesicles and Alveolar Epithelial-Capillary Barrier Disruption in Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: Pathophysiological Role and Therapeutic Potential.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) mediate intercellular communication by transferring genetic material, proteins and organelles between different cells types in both health and disease. Recent evidence suggests that these vesicles, more than simply diagnostic markers, are key mediators of the pathophysiology of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and other lung diseases. In this review, we will discuss the contribution of EVs released by pulmonary structural cells (alveolar epithelial and endothelial cells) and immune cells in these diseases, with particular attention to their ability to modulate inflammation and alveolar-capillary barrier disruption, a hallmark of ARDS. EVs also offer a unique opportunity to develop new therapeutics for the treatment of ARDS. Evidences supporting the ability of stem cell-derived EVs to attenuate the lung injury and ongoing strategies to improve their therapeutic potential are also discussed.