Public Transport Density Research Articles

Assessing multi-spatial driving factors of urban land use transformation in megacities: a case study of Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area from 2000 to 2018

ABSTRACT Rapid morphological and socioeconomic changes have accelerated the urbanization process and urban land use transformation in China. Megacities comprise clusters of urban cities and exhibit both newly formed and well-developed urban land use development beyond administrative boundaries. It is necessary to distinguish the changing effects of spatial-varying driving factors on newly formed urban land uses from well-developed built-up areas in megacities. This study proposed a multi-spatial urbanization framework to quantify region-level socioeconomics, cluster-level ecological morphologies, and grid-level urban functional morphologies. A three-level Bayesian hierarchical model was developed to investigate the impacts of multi-spatial driving factors on urban land use transformation in megacities. The study period focused on the urbanization process between 2000 and 2018 in Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area (GBA). Results revealed that compared with well-developed urban built-up land, changing impacts of three-level driving factors in urban land use transformation could be captured based on the proposed Bayesian hierarchical model. The region-level total population was associated with increasing possibilities in forming new residential land than the well-developed ones in 35 districts/counties/cities in GBA. Cluster-level ecological attributes with higher proportion, lower edge density of urban built areas, and lower-degree ecological complexity showed increasing probability on newly formed industrial and public land. Grid-level urban functional factors including public transportation density and shopping/dining distribution exhibited significantly decreasing probability (coefficients: −2.12 to −0.51) on contributing newly formed land uses compared with the well-developed areas, whereas business/industry distribution represented higher (coefficients: 0.99 and 0.15) and lower probabilities (coefficient: −0.22) of forming industrial/public land and residential land separately. This research shows a new attempt to distinguish multi-spatial morphological and socioeconomic effects in urban land use transformation in megacities.

Inferring household size distribution and its association with the built environment using massive mobile phone data

Household size and its spatial distributions reflect not only the socioeconomic development in a city but also the rationality of urban resource allocation. Most existing studies rely heavily on census data to explore the potentially influential factors using methods such as macro-statistical analysis and socioeconomic analysis, of which the spatial resolutions and geographic scales are constrained. More importantly, the association between the household size distribution and the built environment is oversimplified or even neglected to some extent. In this work, we use massive mobile phone data combined with travel surveys of Beijing inhabitants' data (TSBI) to infer the household size and analyze the effect of spatial heterogeneity in a finer spatial resolution in Beijing, China. First, the machine learning method (i.e., support vector machine (SVM)) is applied to identify the household relationships of mobile users, and there are around 3.44 million households (families) with different sizes are obtained. Second, we analyze the spatial distribution patterns of household size and its association with built environmental indicators (e.g., public service density, public transportation density, etc.). The results exhibit a heterogeneous effect of the regional built environment on average household size (AHS). For instance, “commercial density” and “administrative density” show a negative impact on household size, while “public service density” and “public transportation density” show positive correlations with household size. As a complement to census data, mobile phone data can be used to obtain the household size in real-time. This paper provides quantified evidence for government departments to allocate facilities in a more targeted, balanced, and reasonable way according to the regional differences in household size, which would potentially support the sustainable urban development.

Exploring Transport Consumption-Based Emissions: Spatial Patterns, Social Factors, Well-Being, and Policy Implications

Recent years have seen an increased interest in demand-side mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. Despite the oftentimes spatial nature of emissions research, links to social factors and infrastructure are often not analysed geographically. To reach substantial and lasting emission reductions without further disadvantaging vulnerable populations, the design of effective mitigation policies on the local level requires considerations of spatial and social inequalities as well as the context of well-being. Consequently, we explore spatial variations in the links between consumption-based transport emissions with infrastructural factors, such as workplace distance and public transport density, and with risk-factors of transport poverty, including income, age, ethnicity, mobility constraints in London. We find that linear models report significant spatial autocorrelation at p ≤ 0.01 in their model residuals, indicating spatial dependency. Using geographically weighted regression models improves model fits by an adjusted R2 value of 9–70% compared to linear models. Here, modelling flight emissions generally sees the lowest improvements, while those models modelling emissions from cars and vans see the highest improvements in model fit. We conclude that using geographically weighted regression to assess the links between social factors and emissions offers insights which global, linear models overlook. Moreover, this type of analysis enables an assessment of where, spatially, different types of policy interventions may be most effective in reducing not only emissions, but transport poverty risks. Patterns of spatial heterogeneity and policy implications of this research are discussed.

Development of an objectively measured walkability index for the Netherlands

BackgroundWalkability indices have been developed and linked to behavioural and health outcomes elsewhere in the world, but not comprehensively for Europe. We aimed to 1) develop a theory-based and evidence-informed Dutch walkability index, 2) examine its cross-sectional associations with total and purpose-specific walking behaviours of adults across socioeconomic (SES) and urbanisation strata, 3) explore which walkability components drive these associations.MethodsComponents of the index included: population density, retail and service density, land use mix, street connectivity, green space, sidewalk density and public transport density. Each of the seven components was calculated for three Euclidean buffers: 150 m, 500 m and 1000 m around every 6-digit postal code location and for every administrative neighbourhood in GIS. Componential z-scores were averaged, and final indices normalized between 0 and 100. Data on self-reported demographic characteristics and walking behaviours of 16,055 adult respondents (aged 18–65) were extracted from the Dutch National Travel Survey 2017. Using Tobit regression modelling adjusted for individual- and household-level confounders, we assessed the associations between walkability and minutes walking in total, for non-discretionary and discretionary purposes. By assessing the attenuation in associations between partial indices and walking outcomes, we identified which of the seven components drive these associations. We also tested for effect modification by urbanization degree, SES, age and sex.ResultsIn fully adjusted models, a 10% increase in walkability was associated with a maximum increase of 8.5 min of total walking per day (95%CI: 7.1–9.9). This association was consistent across buffer sizes and purposes of walking. Public transport density was driving the index’s association with walking outcomes. Stratified results showed that associations with minutes of non-discretionary walking were stronger in rural compared to very urban areas, in neighbourhoods with low SES compared to high SES, and in middle-aged (36–49 years) compared to young (18–35 years old) and older adults (50–65 years old).ConclusionsThe walkability index was cross-sectionally associated with Dutch adult’s walking behaviours, indicating its validity for further use in research.

The association between Geographic Information System-based neighborhood built environmental factors and accelerometer-derived light-intensity physical activity across the lifespan: a cross-sectional study.

BackgroundEvidence on associations between environmental factors and accelerometer-derived light-intensity physical activity (LPA) is scarce. The aim of this study was to examine associations between Geographic Information System (GIS)-based neighborhood built environmental factors and accelerometer-derived LPA, and to investigate the moderating effect of age group (adolescents, adults, older adults) on these associations.MethodsObjective data were used from three similar observational studies conducted in Ghent (Belgium) between 2007 and 2015. Accelerometer data were collected from 1,652 participants during seven consecutive days, and GIS-based neighborhood built environmental factors (residential density, intersection density, park density, public transport density, entropy index) were calculated using sausage buffers of 500 m and 1,000 m around the home addresses of all participants. Linear mixed models were performed to estimate the associations.ResultsA small but significant negative association was observed between residential density (500 m buffer) and LPA in the total sample (B = −0.002; SE = 0.0001; p = 0.04), demonstrating that every increase of 1,000 dwellings per surface buffer was associated with a two minute decrease in LPA. Intersection density, park density, public transport density and entropy index were not related to LPA, and moderating effects of age group were absent.ConclusionsThe small association, in combination with other non-significant associations suggests that the neighborhood built environment, as classically measured in moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity research, is of limited importance for LPA. More research is needed to unravel how accelerometer-derived LPA is accumulated, and to gain insight into its determinants.

GIS-Based Survey over the Public Transport Strategy: An Instrument for Economic and Sustainable Urban Traffic Planning

Traffic has a direct impact on local and regional economies, on pollution levels and is also a major source of discomfort and frustration for the public who have to deal with congestion, accidents or detours due to road works or accidents. Congestion in urban areas is a common phenomenon nowadays, as the main arteries of cities become congested during peak hours or when there are additional constraints such as traffic accidents and road works that slow down traffic on road sections. When traffic increases, it is observed that some roads are predisposed to congestion, while others are not. It is evident that both congestion and urban traffic itself are influenced by several factors represented by complex geospatial data and the spatial relationships between them. In this paper were integrated mathematical models, real time traffic data with network analysis and simulation procedures in order to analyze the public transportation in Oradea and the impact on urban traffic. A mathematical model was also adapted to simulate the travel choices of the population of the city and of the surrounding villages. Based on the network analysis, traffic analysis and on the traveling simulation, the elements generating traffic congestion in the inner city can be easily determined. The results of the case study are emphasizing that diminishing the traffic and its effects can be obtained by improving either the public transport density or its accessibility.

Exploring the spatial effects and influencing factors of PM2.5 concentration in the Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomerations of China

The haze pollution caused by PM2.5 is a prominent environmental pollution issue in China, which seriously affects socioeconomic development and human health. However, previous studies ignored the heterogeneity among the different categories of cities in investigating the spatial effects of PM2.5 concentration and its influencing factors at the level of urban agglomerations. Therefore, this study takes 27 cities in the Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomerations of China as a case study to identify the key influencing factors and their direct and spatial effects on PM2.5 in different categories of cities. The results indicate that a 1% increase in population density, energy intensity, industrial pollution emission, and public transport density causes the PM2.5 concentration to rise 0.264%, 0.088%, 0.021%, and 0.085%, respectively, in the whole urban agglomerations. In addition, a 1% increase in economic development and foreign direct investment decreases the PM2.5 concentration by 0.814% and 0.019%, respectively. In the first category, the main influencing factors of PM2.5 are population density, economic development, energy intensity, industrial pollution emission, and public transport density. In the second category, the main factors are economic development, energy intensity, and public transport density. In the third category, the major factors are industrial pollution emission, public transport density, and foreign direct investment. Moreover, population density, energy intensity, and public transport density have significant spatial spillover effects on PM2.5 in the first category. The population density, economic development, energy intensity, industrial pollution emission, and foreign direct investment have significant spatial spillover effects on PM2.5 in the second category. Population density and foreign direct investment have significant spatial spillover effects on PM2.5 concentration in the third category.

Development of a novel Obesogenic Built environment CharacterisTic (OBCT) index for the Netherlands

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Despite the potential synergistic nature of obesogenic built environment characteristics, few studies combined factors across the food and physical activity environments. This study aims to compose a comprehensive, theory-based, expert-informed index to quantify built environment characteristics relevant for adult overweight and obesity for all administrative neighbourhoods in the Netherlands for 2016. METHODS: The Dutch OBCT-index consists of 16 components related to food environments (density and healthiness of all food outlets) and physical activity environments including exercise availability (density of sports facilities) and transport-related components related to walkability, driveability and bikeability (population density, land use mix, sidewalk density, intersection density, green space, retail- and service destination density, destination accessibility, public transport density, distance to train station, job density, distance to nearest highway ramp, bicycle pathway density and parking pressure). For each neighbourhood, data were collected from public and commercial sources and processed in GIS such that each component was scaled to range between 0-100. The resulting OBCT-index was calculated as an average of componental scores across the food and physical activity environments, where higher scores corresponded to more obesogenic neighbourhoods. RESULTS:The OBCT score was composed for all 12821 administrative neighbourhoods in the Netherlands and ranged from 37.38-86.80 (mean=47.83, SD=3.37). The province of North Holland stood out with Amsterdam having both extremes of obesogenicity. Across urbanization degrees, the most rural neighbourhoods (500 addresses/km2) scored 4.35 units (95%CI:4.16-4.55, p0.01) higher than the most urban (2500 addresses/km2). Similarly, neighbourhoods in the highest quartile of housing prices (mean=€358800, SD=€115431) scored 4.02 units (95%CI:3.54-4.50, p0.01) higher than the lowest quartile (mean=€95420, SD=€12264). CONCLUSIONS:The OBCT-index is a potentially useful tool to quantify obesgenicity of neighbourhoods and warrants further research applications. KEYWORDS: obesogenic environment, built environment, food environment, physical activity environment

Development and validation of a nationwide walkability index for the Netherlands using transport survey data

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Neighbourhood walkability indices have been developed and linked to behavioral and health outcomes elsewhere in the world, but not yet in the Netherlands. We aimed to compose a theory-based walkability index for the Netherlands and elucidate its cross-sectional association with adults’ walking behaviours. METHODS: The Dutch walkability index consists of seven components: population density, retail- and service destination density, land-use mix, street connectivity, green space, sidewalk density and public transport density. These components were composed and aggregated to three Euclidean buffer sizes (150m, 500m and 1000m) around every postal code and to every administrative neighbourhood. The normalized walkability index is the sum of its componential z-scores and scaled between 0-100. Data on self-reported demographic characteristics and walking behaviors of adult participants (aged 18-65, n=15716) were extracted from the Dutch National Travel Survey 2017. Using censored regression analysis (tobit model) adjusted for individual and survey-related confounders, we assessed the association between walkability index and total time spent walking, for non-discretionary and discretionary purposes. The main association was also examined across various urbanization degrees, socioeconomic levels, age groups and sexes. RESULTS:In fully-adjusted models, a 1% increase in walkability was associated with 0.49 minutes increase in walking (95%CI: 0.4-0.58), corresponding to 37 meters (95%CI: 29-44). This association was consistent across buffer sizes and between discretionary and non-discretionary walking. Stratified results showed that associations for minutes of walking were stronger in rural (0.90, 95%CI: 0.54-1.26) compared to highly urbanized areas (0.41, 95%CI 0.23-0.59), for discretionary walking in females (0.53, 95%CI: 0.38-0.67), and non-discretionary walking in males (0.64, 95%CI: 0.44-0.84). CONCLUSIONS:The walkability index was associated with walking behaviours of people in the Netherlands, indicating its value for further use in the Netherlands. KEYWORDS: walkability, built environment, travel behaviours

Psychosocial and Social Environmental Factors as Moderators in the Relation between the Objective Environment and Older Adults' Active Transport.

In order to develop tailored interventions aiming to encourage active transport among older adults, it is important to gain insights into the modifiable moderators affecting active transport behavior considering the neighborhood in which one lives. Therefore, this study aimed to determine which objective physical environmental factors have an impact on the active transport behavior of Belgian older adults (≥65 years old) and which psychosocial and social environmental moderators influence those relationships. Data from 503 independent living older adults who participated the Belgian Environmental Physical Activity Study in Seniors were included. Multilevel negative binominal regression models (participants nested in neighborhoods) with log link function were fitted for the analyses. Our resulted indicated that older adults living in an environment with higher residential density, higher park density, lower public transport density, and more entropy index had higher active transport levels. Furthermore, different types of neighborhood in which older adults live can lead to different moderators that are decisive for increasing older adults’ active transport behavior. Therefore, based on our results some recommendations towards tailored interventions could be given to increase older adults’ active transport behavior depending on the environment in which one lives.

Urban environments and objectively-assessed physical activity and sedentary time in older Belgian and Chinese community dwellers: potential pathways of influence and the moderating role of physical function

BackgroundMany studies have examined neighbourhood environmental correlates of older adults’ physical activity (PA) but only a few focused on sedentary time (ST). Only a small proportion of these studies used objective measures of PA/ST, such as accelerometer-assessed PA/ST, and only a couple employed accelerometer cut-points appropriate for older adults. Furthermore, although older adults experience declines in physical function as they age, there is a dearth of information on the impact of the neighbourhood environment on PA/ST in individuals with different levels of physical function.MethodsWe used data from two extant cross-sectional studies conducted in Hong Kong (China) and Ghent (Belgium) (N = 829). Participants were recruited from pre-selected administrative units stratified by socio-economic status and walkability. Moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) and ST were assessed for 7 days using accelerometers and cut-points developed for older adults. Objective neighbourhood environmental attributes within 400 m and 1 km buffers surrounding participants’ homes were quantified using Geographic Information Systems data. Lower extremity physical function was objectively assessed. Socio-demographic information was collected via interviews. Total, direct and indirect (mediated) effects of environmental attributes on MVPA and ST were estimated using generalised additive mixed models and the joint-significant test.ResultsCommercial/civic destination density and number of parks within 1 km from home showed positive total and direct effects on MVPA, and public transport density showed negative total and direct effects on ST, which were consistent across cities and physical function levels. The total and direct effects of residential density on MVPA depended on physical function, and those of residential density on ST differed by city. A complex network of potential inconsistent pathways linking all environmental attributes to MVPA and ST in the whole sample or in subgroups of participants was revealed.DiscussionAccess to parks and commercial/civic destinations appear to support older adults’ MVPA in different geographical and cultural contexts and irrespective of their physical function level. By supporting MVPA, these characteristics also contribute to a reduction in ST. The potential effects of public transport, recreational facilities and residential density are less straightforward and point at inconsistent effects that may depend on the geographical context and level of physical function.

How urban densification shapes walking behaviours in older community dwellers: a cross-sectional analysis of potential pathways of influence

BackgroundPopulation growth, population ageing, and urbanisation are major global demographic trends that call for an examination of the impact of urban densification on older adults’ health-enhancing behaviours, such as walking. No studies have examined the pathways through which urban densification may affect older adults’ walking. This information is key to evidence-based, health-oriented urban and transport planning. This study aimed to identify neighbourhood environment characteristics potentially responsible for the effects of neighbourhood densification on older adults’ frequency and amount of transportation and recreation walking within and outside the neighbourhood.MethodsThe Active Lifestyle and the Environment in Chinese Seniors (ALECS) project collected self-reported data from 909 older adults (≥ 65 years) living in 128 physically and socially diverse neighbourhoods in Hong Kong (71% response rate). Walking was measured using the Neighbourhood Walking Questionnaire for Chinese Seniors. Objective residential density and other neighbourhood environmental attributes were assessed using Geographic Information Systems. Generalised additive mixed models examined the total effects of neighbourhood residential density on walking and the mediating role of other environmental attributes and car ownership.ResultsA complex network of potential pathways of positive and negative influences of neighbourhood residential density on different aspects of walking was revealed. While residential density was positively related to within-neighbourhood transportation and outside-neighbourhood recreation walking only, it exhibited positive and/or negative nonlinear indirect effects on all examined aspects of walking via recreation, public transport, food/retail and street intersection densities, and/or car ownership.ConclusionsHigh-density environments appear to support within-neighbourhood walking by providing access to food and retail outlets via well-connected street networks and discouraging car ownership. However, extreme density may lead to reductions in walking. Public transport density accompanying high-density areas may facilitate outside-neighbourhood walking but deter within-neighbourhood walking. The development of activity-friendly communities for ageing populations need to consider these opposing influences.

Does Environmental Walkability Matter? The Role of Walkable Environment in Active Commuting.

Since walkability plays an important role in active commuting, several cities are actively promoting its integration into urban and environmental planning policies. This study examined the association between walkability and active commuting in Seoul, Korea. A multilevel logistic regression model was used to examine the correlation between Walkability Score and the probability of active commuting after controlling for individual variables. The analysis used 129,044 individual samples nested within 424 administrative districts (dongs). In this study, three models were tested: Model 1 contained only individual variables, Model 2 contained individual variables and Walkability Score, and Model 3 included neighborhood-level variables in addition to the variables of Model 2. The results showed that the Walkability Score was significantly correlated with the odds of active commuting. Specifically, every additional one-point increase in Walkability Score was associated with 0.3% higher odds of active commuting (Model 2: odds ratio (OR) = 1.003, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.001–1.005; Model 3: OR = 1.003, 95% CI = 1.001–1.006). Additionally, public transportation density was also positively correlated with the odds of active commuting. The odds of active commuting were positively correlated with younger age, female, lower-income, and having no car. Based on the findings, policy recommendations in urban planning and design, transport engineering, and environmental planning are provided.

Associations of built environment and proximity of food outlets with weight status: Analysis from 14 cities in 10 countries

The study aimed to examine associations of neighborhood built environments and proximity of food outlets (BE measures) with body weight status using pooled data from an international study (IPEN Adult). Objective BE measures were calculated using geographic information systems for 10,008 participants (4463 male, 45%) aged 16–66 years in 14 cities. Participants self-reported proximity to three types of food outlets. Outcomes were body mass index (BMI) and overweight/obesity status. Male and female weight status associations with BE measures were estimated by generalized additive mixed models. Proportion (95% CI) of overweight (BMI 25 to <30) ranged from 16.6% (13.1, 19.8) to 41.1% (37.3, 44.7), and obesity (BMI ≥ 30) from 2.9% (1.3, 4.4) to 31.3% (27.7, 34.7), with Hong Kong being the lowest and Cuernavaca, Mexico highest for both proportions. Results differed by sex. Greater street intersection density, public transport density and perceived proximity to restaurants (males) were associated with lower odds of overweight/obesity (BMI ≥ 25). Proximity to public transport stops (females) was associated with higher odds of overweight/obesity. Composite BE measures were more strongly related to BMI and overweight/obesity status than single variables among men but not women. One standard deviation improvement in the composite measures of BE was associated with small reductions of 0.1–0.5% in BMI but meaningful reductions of 2.5–5.3% in the odds of overweight/obesity. Effects were linear and generalizable across cities. Neighborhoods designed to support public transport, with food outlets within walking distance, may contribute to global obesity control.

Critical factors for mitigating car traffic in cities.

Car traffic in urban systems has been studied intensely in past decades but models are either limited to a specific aspect of traffic or applied to a specific region. Despite the importance and urgency of the problem we have a poor theoretical understanding of the parameters controlling urban car use and congestion. Here, we combine economical and transport ingredients into a statistical physics approach and propose a generic model that predicts for different cities the share of car drivers, the CO2 emitted by cars and the average commuting time. We confirm these analytical predictions on 25 major urban areas in the world, and our results suggest that urban density is not the most relevant variable controlling car-related quantities but rather are the city’s area size and the density of public transport. Mitigating the traffic (and its effect such as CO2 emissions) can then be obtained by reducing the urbanized area size or, more realistically, by improving either the public transport density or its access. In particular, increasing the population density is a good idea only if it also increases the fraction of individuals having access to public transport.

Objectively-assessed neighbourhood destination accessibility and physical activity in adults from 10 countries: An analysis of moderators and perceptions as mediators

RationaleResidents of neighbourhoods with high destination accessibility (higher population density, more-interconnected streets, and better access to services, public transport and parks) are more physically active. Evidence on the factors that underlie these associations is sparse and inconsistent. ObjectiveWe examined (1) five socio-demographic and four non-destination perceived neighbourhood attributes as moderators of the relationship between objectively-assessed destination accessibility and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA); (2) perceived indicators of destination accessibility as mediators of those relationships; and, (3) the generalizability of findings across 14 cities. MethodsData were from the International Physical Activity and Environment Network (IPEN) Adult study (N = 6822), which provided comparable objective and perceived environmental variables and accelerometer-based MVPA from 14 cities across 10 countries. Mediation and mediation moderation analyses were performed. ResultsObjective net residential density, public transport density, and number of parks in the neighbourhood were consistently associated with MVPA across all examined socio-demographic groups and non-destination perceived neighbourhood characteristics. However, only the association between number of parks and MVPA was mediated by its conceptually-comparable perceived indicator. While the associations of objective intersection density and land use mix with MVPA were moderated by both gender and perceived pedestrian infrastructure/safety, only the latter moderating effects were mediated by the conceptually-comparable perceived indicators. Perceived neighbourhood safety and/or aesthetics moderated the associations of objective ratio of retail/civic land to total area and distance to nearest transport stop with MVPA. These associations were not mediated by the conceptually-comparable perceived indicators. ConclusionDensely populated neighbourhoods with access to public transport and parks have the potential to significantly and equitably contribute to adults' MVPA on a global scale. Perceived neighbourhood aesthetics, pedestrian-friendliness and safety can magnify the positive effects of mixed-use neighbourhoods on residents' MVPA by interacting with the perceived ease of access to a variety of destinations.

Cross-sectional associations of objectively assessed neighbourhood attributes with depressive symptoms in older adults of an ultra-dense urban environment: the Hong Kong ALECS study

ObjectivesThis study aimed to examine the associations between objectively assessed neighbourhood environmental attributes and depressive symptoms in Hong Kong Chinese older adults and the moderating effects of neighbourhood environmental attributes...

Do associations between objectively-assessed physical activity and neighbourhood environment attributes vary by time of the day and day of the week? IPEN adult study

BackgroundTo more accurately quantify the potential impact of the neighbourhood environment on adults’ physical activity (PA), it is important to compare environment-PA associations between periods of the day or week when adults are more versus less likely to be in their neighbourhood and utilise its PA resources. We examined whether, among adults from 10 countries, associations between objectively-assessed neighbourhood environment attributes and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) varied by time of the day and day of the week. The secondary aim was to examine whether such associations varied by employment status, gender and city.MethodsThis cross-sectional study included 6,712 adults from 14 cities across 10 countries with ≥1 day of valid accelerometer-assessed MVPA and complete information on socio-demographic and objectively-assessed environmental characteristics within 0.5 and 1 km street-network buffers around the home. Accelerometer measures (MVPA min/h) were created for six time periods from early morning until late evening/night, for weekdays and weekend days separately. Associations were estimated using generalized additive mixed models.ResultsTime of the day, day of week, gender and employment status were significant moderators of environment-MVPA associations. Land use mix was positively associated with MVPA in women who were employed and in men irrespective of their employment status. The positive associations between MVPA and net residential density, intersection density and land use mix were stronger in the mornings of weekdays and the afternoon/evening periods of both weekdays and weekend days. Associations between number of parks and MVPA were stronger in the mornings and afternoon/evenings irrespective of day of the week. Public transport density showed consistent positive associations with MVPA during weekends, while stronger effects on weekdays were observed in the morning and early evenings.ConclusionsThis study suggests that space and time constraints in adults’ daily activities are important factors that determine the impact of neighbourhood attributes on PA. Consideration of time-specific associations is important to better characterise the magnitude of the effects of the neighbourhood environment on PA. Future research will need to examine the contribution of built environment characteristics of areas surrounding other types of daily life centres (e.g., workplaces) to explaining adults’ PA at specific times of the day.

Association Between the Built Environment in School Neighborhoods With Physical Activity Among New York City Children, 2012.

IntroductionThe benefits of physical activity for health and well-being are well established, yet built environment characteristics in the school neighborhood may constrain students’ ability to engage in physical activity and contribute to the considerable variation in physical activity among students at different schools.MethodsBaseline data from the Food, Health and Choices obesity prevention trial were used to create multilevel linear models of the relationship between fifth-grade students’ (n = 952) physical activity and related psychosocial factors and characteristics of the built environment of the school’s neighborhood (park access, public transportation density, total crime, and walkability), controlling for age and body mass index z scores.ResultsTotal crime was inversely associated with boys’ light physical activity duration (β = −0.189; P = .02) and behavioral intention for physical activity (β = −0.178; P = .03). Boys’ habit strength for physical activity was positively associated with public transportation density (β = 0.375; P = .02) and negatively associated with total crime (β = −0.216; P = .01), explaining 67% of between-school variation. Girls’ frequency of light physical activity was positively associated with park access (β = 0.188; P = .04). Built environment characteristics explained 97% of the between-school variation in girls’ self-efficacy in walking for exercise.ConclusionsCharacteristics of the built environment surrounding schools were associated with and explain between-school variation in students’ physical activity and several theory-based psychosocial factors. Partnerships between public health practitioners, policy makers, and school administrators may be warranted to shape the school neighborhood, specifically to decrease crime rates and increase park access, to encourage physical activity in youth.

Research in brief

With data from the international cross-sectional IPEN adult study, researchers have examined links between the urban environment and physical activity. They analysed data for 6822 adults, from 14 cities in ten different countries, and six different environmental attributes. Net residential density, number of parks, public transport density, and intersection density were positively associated with physical activity (single variable models; p<0·05), whereas distance to the nearest public transport point and mixed land use were not. Individuals residing in the most activity-friendly cities did 68–89 min more moderate-to-vigorous physical activity per week, as assessed by accelerometer, than individuals residing in the least activity-friendly cities (combined variable model).