Public School Administrators Research Articles

Influence of Organizational Technology on Administrative Performance of Public Secondary Schools in Nakuru County, Kenya

The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of organizational technology on administrative performance in public secondary schools in Nakuru County, Kenya. The study adopted a mixed-method research design. The study targeted 352 principals in public secondary schools and 11 Sub-County Quality Assurance and Standards Officers in Nakuru County. Using stratified random sampling, a sample size of 106 principals and 4 Sub-County Quality Assurance and Standards Officers (30 % of the population) was selected. Data collection methods included questionnaires administered to principals and interviews conducted with Sub-County Quality Assurance and Standards Officers (SCQASO). Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics, including Pearson’s correlation and regression analysis, while qualitative data underwent thematic analysis. A pre-test involving 11 schools in Nyandarua County confirmed the reliability of the research instruments, yielding a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.805. The findings reveals a strong and significant correlation between organizational technology and administrative performance (r = 0.876, p = 0.004). It was concluded that organizational technology, significantly influenced the administrative performance of principals, ultimately enhancing school effectiveness. To improve public secondary school administration, it is recommended that operational efficiency be enhanced, and technology be integrated.

Influence of Organizational Roles on Administrative Performance of Public Secondary Schools in Nakuru County, Kenya

The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of organizational roles on administrative performance in public secondary schools in Nakuru County, Kenya. The study adopted a mixed-method research design. The study targeted 352 principals in public secondary schools and 11 Sub-County Quality Assurance and Standards Officers in Nakuru County. Using stratified random sampling, a sample size of 106 principals and 4 Sub-County Quality Assurance and Standards Officers (30 % of the population) was selected. Data collection methods included questionnaires administered to principals and interviews conducted with Sub-County Quality Assurance and Standards Officers (SCQASO). Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics, including Pearson’s correlation and regression analysis, while qualitative data underwent thematic analysis. A pre-test involving 11 schools in Nyandarua County confirmed the reliability of the research instruments, yielding a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.805. The study found that the correlation coefficients between organizational roles and administrative performance in public secondary schools in Nakuru County, Kenya (r = 0.567, p = 0.002) was strong and significant. Organizational role significantly influenced the administrative performance of principals, ultimately enhancing school effectiveness. To improve public secondary school administration, it is recommended that clearly defined administrative roles be established.

Grounded governance: Cultivating social justice through community-engaged learning with PEPAKEṈ HÁUTW̱ (Blossoming Place)

By deepening student relationships to local governance systems, they become better equipped to envision and enact the worlds they seek to create. This paper discusses a community-engaged learning initiative facilitated by a University of Victoria instructor that centered on the theme of “Grounded Governance” to anchor student learning about governance and social justice theories, movements and practices. The overall approach draws inspiration from bell hooks who explains the value and significance of engaged learning. Specifically, this paper discusses the experience of teaching place-based learning through engagement with Indigenous-led ecological restoration efforts, including collaboration with PEPAKEṈ HÁUTW̱ (Blossoming Place). The author reflects on community site visits with a W̱SÁNEĆ nonprofit organization to learn about ecological restoration and decolonial governance. This grounded approach to teaching is inspired by Indigenous-led place-based learning. As a collaborative effort between the Studies in Social Justice program, the School of Public Administration and community partners, this pedagogy aims to integrate community-engaged learning more deeply into the study of public administration. Doing so in practice emphasizes relationship-building with local Indigenous-led community organizations while supporting student learning objectives by teaching about social justice through collaborative and meaningful public engagement.

Communication Disparities and Trusted Sources of COVID-19 Information in Massachusetts School Districts.

The COVID-19 pandemic led to the closure of prekindergarten to grade 12 schools and an inequitable return to full-time in-person learning. To explore how ethnic and racial differences across school districts in Massachusetts correlate with parents' attitudes, beliefs, and trusted sources of information about COVID-19 and mitigation strategies. An electronic survey was distributed by school administrators to parents and guardians in November and December 2021 using existing school district contact lists and established methods of communication (email in 2 school districts; email and text message in 1 district). Three school districts in Massachusetts (Chelsea, Medford, and Somerville). Parents of prekindergarten to grade 12 school students attending public schools. Parental attitudes and beliefs regarding mitigation strategies for COVID-19 (surveillance testing, masking, and vaccination); trusted information sources about COVID-19; preferred methods of communication from schools. A total of 1496 survey responses were analyzed. Chelsea respondents were predominantly Hispanic/LatinX (88%); Medford and Somerville were predominantly White/non-Hispanic (80% and 68%, respectively). Testing, masks, and vaccination were supported by >80% of parents/guardians across districts. However, there were statistically significant differences between school districts regarding participation in testing programs, implications of a child testing positive, vaccination of young children, communication preferences, and trusted sources of information. Although primarily focused on COVID-19, these results highlight opportunities for public health personnel and school administrators to work directly with parents and guardians in their school districts to improve communication strategies and be a trusted source of information for a variety of public health issues.

Eurasian Civilization: Conceptual Geo-Economic Framework in the Context of a New World Order

The article is based upon the authors presentation at the All-Russian Conference with international participation “The Concept of the Russian Civilization” held at the School of Public Administration of Lomonosov Moscow State University on January 22–23, 2024. In addition to the basic propositions of the presentation the article contains certain ideas and methodological hypothesis regarding the framework for defining the limits of the Eurasian geopolitical space taking into consideration the on-going global and regional transformations. The successful integration of the geo-economic macro-region “Larger Eurasia” as a part of the economic regionalization in the contemporary political environment of competition of values means considering a wider array of factors beyond geo-economics: history, including the history of economic development, culture as well as the social aspects. The author promotes the position in favor of the integration of the mechanisms that are based upon the Eurasian theory and advanced mechanisms that form the economic and governing basis for the formation of the geoeconomic macro-regions. The trend for the formation of geoeconomic macro-regions was slowed down by the West but non dismantled completely. Those factors are directly involved in the issue of Eurasian frontier and the mechanism of its geo-economic demarcation. Special attention in the article is paid to the issue of the Western border (frontier) of Eurasia. The issue is addressed basing on the authors hypothesis about the existence of “Dnieper proto-fault” that integrates civilizational (socio-cultural) and spatial geo-economic aspects. The fundamental transformations’ potential including the force which lies in this proto-fault has already manifested itself during the Special military operation that Russia has started in February 2022.The effective analysis is needed not only for the interdisciplinary approach but flexible and creative adaptation of the philosophical heritage of founders of the Eurasian theory updating it to the newly emerged reality and relevant to the special, geography-based political and economic architecture.

Perspectives on immigrant students: insights from school administrators within the Turkish education system

ABSTRACT This study intends to shed light on the perspectives of school administrators regarding children of immigrant families in the Turkish educational landscape. The study employs a descriptive phenomenological approach. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews with 17 public school administrators in Turkey. A content analysis methodology was employed for data analysis. According to the findings, immigrant students in Turkish schools face educational challenges due to language barriers, unfamiliarity with laws, and socio-economic factors. The findings recommend organizing educational sessions for school personnel, local students, and their families on fostering positive interactions with immigrant students and their peers.

REGULATING THE STATUS OF OFFICIALS OF THE REGIONAL INTERGOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS IN SOUTHEAST EUROPE: A QUEST FOR AN INTERNATIONAL CIVIL SERVICE

The article explores how the constituent instruments and secondary rules of the selected three regional intergovernmental organisations in Southeast Europe (Energy Community, Transport Community, Regional School of Public Administration) have incorporated some key legal concepts related to the status of international officials - professional independence of international officials and exclusivity of international service; recruitment standards; and the legal remedies for protecting the rights of international officials. The article, at the first place, defines the notion of international civil service, and elaborates, based on the legal texts of a number of international organisations and theoretical writings, the international practice in regulating the above specified concepts. The article than analyses and assesses how these concepts have been addressed in the relevant legal documents of the selected organisations. Finally, the article concludes that the explored legal texts provide for the guarantees of professional independence of the officials and contain the elaborated rules on recruitment aiming at selecting qualified staff and ensuring the geographical equilibrium within the secretariats. However, certain shortages have been identified and explained in relation to the existence of adequate legal remedies for protecting staff, particularly through the judicial proceedings.

Influence of Boards of Management Practices on Teachers Performance in Public Secondary Schools in Kenya: A Case of Manga Sub-County Nyamira County, Kenya

The purpose of the Basic Education Act No. 14 of 2013 is to increase professionalism in the administration of public elementary schools by establishing Boards of Management. The purpose of this research is to analyse the effect that Boards of Management policies have on student achievement in public primary schools in the Manga sub-county of Kisii County, Kenya. The study set out to answer several questions about the impact of various factors on students' academic success, including the availability of instructional resources, the quality of the school's physical environment, the quality of the teaching staff, and the effectiveness of the school's management's efforts to motivate its employees. The research was based on the open systems theory and the Path Goal Leadership Theory. The study used a variety of research strategies. Concurrent triangulation, a research strategy that blends quantitative and qualitative data, was used for this investigation. Principals, BOM members, and the Sub County Director of Education made up the study population. Sampling was performed using a stratified random sampling technique. Strata were designated as learning environments. Questionnaires and interview scripts were used to compile the data. The researcher piloted the surveys with two elementary schools in Manga Sub County that have certain demographic and social characteristics with the study area. Pearson's Product Coefficient was used to verify reliability. Co-efficient. If the dependability co-efficient was lower than 0.7, then the instruments would need to be improved. The instruments' validity and reliability were established by having them crafted under the watchful eyes of the supervisors and by consulting with subject-matter experts. Both qualitative and quantitative techniques were used to analyse the data. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used in the quantitative approaches. Descriptive statistics included measurements of central tendency and dispersion, such as means and standard deviations. Chi-square tests and spearman rank order correlations were used for inferential statistics. Analysing qualitative data required making sense of the responses and contrasting them with prior research. Frequency tables, percentages, and other numerical were used. Ethical considerations were taken into account during the investigation. The vast majority of respondents agreed that their schools' ability to provide necessary teaching and learning resources was facilitated by adhering to a schedule of events. The majority of respondents said that BOM members are capable of accurately forecasting and budgeting for physical infrastructure on their own. All respondents said that those working in BOM were trustworthy because of their moral rectitude and upright character. The research concluded that the Ministry of Education should institute safeguards to guarantee that only qualified individuals serve on public elementary school governing boards. It is imperative that steps be taken to guarantee the exchequer allocates sufficient funds for the purchase of physical infrastructure for public elementary schools

Through a social workers lens: examining school administrators discipline perspectives and practices

ABSTRACT Zero-tolerance school suspensions are uncompromising discipline practices that obstruct and deny students access to school-provided meals, school-based support, and academic instruction. More alarmingly, this authoritarian disciplinary practice is prevalent in 75% of schools across the United States. Despite its popularity, a well-established body of literature underscores the detriments of zero-tolerance school discipline, particularly for Black males. Yet, few studies have explored urban K-12 school administrators’ viewpoints and impressions of zero-tolerance school suspensions. Thus, this exploratory qualitative study utilized individual semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis to examine urban K-12 public school administrators’ perceptions, use, and outcomes of zero-tolerance school suspensions. Findings revealed three key themes in administrators’ discipline decision-making: individualized approaches, distrust in zero-tolerance and bureaucratic barriers, and self-reflection. These findings demonstrate how urban K-12 school administrators applied empathetic perspectives, personalized disciplinary approaches, and reluctance to use zero-tolerance suspensions. Additional findings revealed the use of self-reflection as a tool to circumvent zero-tolerance practices, highlighting awareness of racial disparities as a contributing factor. Examining individualized student discipline as a restorative practice, areas for future research, study limitations, and implications for policy and practice are incorporated.

Effects of Funds Disbursement on Financial Sustainability of Public Secondary Schools in Alego Usonga Sub-County, Kenya

Financial sustainability in public secondary schools has been tested, with disbursement of funds and school fee payments cited as major issues. This study is therefore intended to examine the relationship between fund disbursement and the financial sustainability of public secondary schools. The study applied fund accounting theory. The study employed a descriptive research design employing a mixed approach and targeted 50 public secondary schools, hence a target of 100 respondents, two per school (school bursar, accounts clerk, and school principal) in Alego Usonga, of which a census was conducted involving all the schools. Primary data was collected using a closed-ended questionnaire, while secondary data was extracted from audited financial statements for public secondary schools. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin was conducted for validity as well as Cronbach alpha for reliability. Piloting on 10 respondents (5 bursars and 5 principals) was conducted in Kakamega County. Data analysis involved descriptive statistics such as frequency tables, mean, and standard deviation, while inferential statistics included correlation analysis, multiple regression, and hierarchical regression. The findings of this research may be of great importance to public secondary school administrators, managers of various financial institutions, and school suppliers wishing to deliver items to the public secondary schools on credit terms. It may equally be of importance to researchers and future scholars who might need to refer to or build on this work for further research. The R square, or coefficient of determination, demonstrates that fund disbursement accounts for 46.7% of the variance in performances (R2 = 0.467). This suggests that fund disbursement has a major bearing on the results achieved. Fund disbursement was a significant predictor (p<.000). The study recommends that public secondary schools should have stronger fund disbursements. This should happen through the Ministry of Education providing timely capitation. Other agencies, such as NG-CDF and county bursaries, should be timely remitted to the public secondary schools.

Bubbles, currents and splashes: metaphors to make sense of innovation and learning practices in the public sector

This paper explores how metaphors can help create and reflect on project-based training initiatives in the public sector. We build on the experience of a capacity-building program for public servants led by the Brazilian National School of Public Administration (Enap) in 2020. We used the metaphor of a project as a collective diving both to design the methodology of the program, and also to analyse its effects after the end of the projects. Through conversations with project facilitators and participants, we expanded the initial metaphor, to explore how diving connects to breathing, a necessary condition for experimentation and learning. Additionally, we found that the project conditions were like bubbles and currents, creating a reference for understanding the relationship with the environment in which teams are embedded. Finally, we looked at the variable yet often overlooked outcomes that can be understood as splashes, a key metaphorical concept for discussing programs that aim to simultaneously foster public innovation and collective learning. In this paper, we present an example of metaphors acting as boundary objects, adding granularity and nuance to the inquiry into public innovation initiatives, and identifying their possible implications in relation to institutional logics and complex structures.

Identifying the Predictors of School Improvement Plan Implementation by School Administrators

This study aimed to identify the level of managerial capabilities, human resource management, and quality assurance practices of school administrators on the implementation of School Improvement Plan (SIP). The respondents of the study were the 489 public school administrators of Northern Mindanao, Philippines. The data were gathered through survey questionnaires and was treated through descriptive statistics, Pearson product-moment correlation, and stepwise multiple regression analysis. School administrators exhibit remarkable managerial capabilities, earning high praise for their adept handling of operations, finances, and for fostering a conducive learning environment. Their strong human resource management skills are evident in nurturing collaborative communities, managing staff effectively, and conducting recruitment efficiently. Quality assurance practices are notably well-developed, indicating the school's ability to deliver top-notch education and support. Implementation of the SIP receives glowing reviews, showcasing the administrators' proficiency in enhancing learning environments, community engagement, resource allocation, curriculum, and staff management. Thus, the data highlights the school administrators outstanding performance and excellence across multiple crucial areas. The correlation analysis revealed significant relationships among managerial capabilities, human resource management, quality assurance practices, to the SIP implementation. Particularly, strong correlations were observed, indicating that schools excelling in one management area tend to perform well in others. Regression analysis highlighted five significant predictors of SIP implementation by administrators: school operation management, teacher and staff performance, leadership, processes, and partnerships/resources. These findings emphasize the significant role of effective management practices, especially in areas like staff performance, quality assurance, and resource allocation, in driving SIP implementation.

Democracy out-of-the-box: analysis of compliance with constitutional principles in tax policies that use Artificial Intelligence

The Democratic State of Law emerged with the objective of improving everyone’s life, restricting the power of tyrants, who, among other arbitrary acts, unfairly taxed the people. While taxes remain crucial for the State’s upkeep, modern rules prevent individuals from enduring excessive burdens. Although new technologies leveraging Artificial Intelligence (AI) hold the promise of enhancing lives, the extent of this improvement raises questions. This study delves into the relationship between individuals and the State, specifically exploring the use of AI in tax-related scenarios. Conducting a comprehensive three-stage investigation, the first stage involved surveying the reasons behind State-imposed limitations on taxation. The second stage identified criteria from computer literature addressing potential AI challenges and strategies for achieving explainability. Additionally, a discussion emphasized the importance of technological models aligning with principles that underpin our society. Then, to understand how actions have been carried out in Public Administration, a Systematic Mapping Study (SMS) was carried out, analyzing works from the ACM Digital Library, SBC OpenLib (SOL) and the ENAP (National School of Public Administration)’s repository (a Gray Literature repository). On the ENAP website, works relating to the Creativity and Innovation Award from the Federal Revenue of Brazil were specifically consulted. In the end, 10 works that met the inclusion criteria were selected. It was concluded that none of them has an AI explainable model, considering the interpretability criteria of models (Rules and logic, Data visualization, and Model documentation). In light of this, it is recommended that studies addressing the use of AI in Public Administration incorporate a dedicated section discussing the explainability of models.

Predictors of Mental Health and Job Burnout of Secondary School Teachers in Owerri Education Zone I, Imo State Nigeria

Aim of the Study: The study examined the predictor of mental health and job burnout of secondary school teachers in Owerri Education Zone I, Imo State Nigeria. Design/Methodology: 312 teachers from six government-owned secondary schools, participated in this cross-sectional survey study. Along with information on demographics, health-related behaviours, and resilience, the survey tools included the anxiety, stress and depression scale and burnout inventory for educators survey via hierarchical multiple regression analyses and descriptive statistics. Findings: Descriptive statistics were used in the study, and the findings indicated that 10.0% of teachers experienced severe anxiety, 7.3% had severe or extremely severe stress, and 4.3% had severe depression. According to the findings of the study on teacher burnout using hierarchical multiple regression analyses, emotional exhaustion was significantly predicted by age, marital status, family economic status, frequency of exercise, drinking, and resilience; depersonalisation was significantly predicted by drinking, and personal accomplishment was significantly predicted by resilience. The results of the hierarchical multiple regression analyses for the mental health of teachers also showed that age, family economic status, resilience, and exercise frequency were significant predictors of depression; gender, marital status, resilience, and sleep were significant predictors of stress; and marital status, family economic status, exercise frequency, smoking, and resilience were significant predictors of anxiety. Practical Implications: In order to help teachers better grasp the benefits of exercise and sleep for their mental health, schools should collaborate with nearby mental health centres to offer programmes that may be attended in person or virtually in enhancing mental well-being and lowering teacher burnout. Originality/value: This study is the first in Imo State, Nigeria to offer a thorough Teacher Wellness Programme in addition to offering a thorough analysis of teachers’ mental health and burnout. This study offers personal and professional development tools that public health professionals and school administrators can use to improve mental health and reduce teacher burnout.

Readiness of the Public-school Administrators to Distance Learning in New Mexico, USA

The COVID-19 pandemic greatly affected the public schools in New Mexico; hence, this study intended to assess the readiness of the public school administrators in New Mexico, USA, to switch the traditional face-to-face to distance learning. There were, of course, many other respects of the evolved problem, such as defining all challenges and what were fundamental ways of dealing with them. However, this study concentrated only on diagnosing the readiness for overwhelming distance learning. The respective profiles of the school administrators were determined in this study to distinguish their capabilities and readiness for distance learning, considering the problems that occurred in the current implementation.

Decision-making skills and leadership effectiveness among public school administrators in Tarragona District, Davao Oriental

This study determined the influence of decision-making skills on leadership effectiveness among public school administrators in Tarragona District, Davao Oriental division. It employed a descriptive-correlational research method. Gathering data from 143 respondents, results revealed that female school administrators had (n=72) higher educational qualifications compared to their male counterparts (n=71). Most of the administrators were in their retirement age (x=54-60). They had moderate levels of decision-making skills, specifically in rational, intuition, dependent, avoidant, and spontaneous decision-making. In terms of leadership effectiveness, the school administrators were categorized as high in instructional programs, financial resource management, and school community relations while moderate level in staff administration and student services. There was a strong positive correlation between decision-making skills and the leadership effectiveness of the administrators in terms of their educational attainment. The direct effect of decision-making skills and the leadership effectiveness of public school administrators was categorically small in size. Among the fit indices for decision-making and leadership inventory skills, only Joreskog-Sorbom's Fit Index (GFI) was the only best-fit model. Parallel studies may be conducted by examining other aspects and the nature of variables related to decision-making skills and leadership effectiveness so that further assessments on the reliability and validity of the data in this research could be ascertained.

A Study of Factors Influencing Happiness in Korea: Topic Modelling and Neural Network Analysis

The aim of this study is to derive the important factors that influence levels of happiness in Korea, and to identify which factors are particularly important among these influencing factors. To achieve this goal, topic modelling analysis, machine learning analysis and neural network analysis methods were utilized. The Netminer 4.5 program was used for topic modelling analysis and machine learning analysis, and SPSS MODELER 18 was used to perform neural network analysis. Two types of analysis data were used in this study. The first consisted of 1 000 papers relating to happiness published in academic journals managed by the Springer publishing company, which were used to derive happiness-influencing factors. The second consisted of a survey conducted in 2020 by the Community Well-being Center of the Graduate School of Public Administration at Seoul National University in Korea. A total of 16 655 people responded to this survey. The analysis results of the study are as follows. Important variables that affect the level of happiness of Korean residents are: family life, social status, income, health, and perceptions of inequality. Analysis using neural network analysis of the most important factors influencing happiness showed that satisfaction with family life had the most important influence. This suggests that policies that can improve the quality of family life, such as family-friendly work environments, childcare support, and domestic violence prevention and response programmes, will become important in the future

Roles of e-Management Systems in School Administration to keep pace with Vision 2030 of KSA in Makkah (2022)

This study aims at defining the electronic administration and its role in developing the administrative process in the public schools, measuring the impact of implementing its systems on the development of the administrative work and the performance of the administrative staff in the public schools, identifying obstacles and presenting some recommendations to face these obstacles. To achieve this, the researcher used the descriptive, analytical method, relying on the questionnaire tool that was distributed to a random sample of 100 principals and administrators in public schools in Makkah. The data are collected from randomly different schools to measure the extent to which electronic management is applied. In order to achieve the objectives of the study, a questionnaire was developed, consisting of two parts; the first part about the personal information of each employee, and the second section consists of seven axes for the effect of electronic management on performance. The results of the study showed the application of electronic management in schools in the city of Mecca, where most of the results were limited to the mean values (3.40-4.19), which indicate that all respondents agreed that they have knowledge of electronic management systems. Electronic management systems helped develop administrative work and improve the performance of employees. In government schools, the effectiveness of electronic management systems and the speed of their performance. Whereas everyone strongly supports and agrees with a high degree between (4.20-5.00) that the use of electronic management contributes to achieving Vision 2030. However, it was found that there are obstacles in the lack of facilities that schools need to support electronic management systems, as well as challenges facing the application of electronic management systems. Through the result that appeared (2.60-3.39), the majority was neutral. Through these results, I find that a number of recommendations and proposals must be presented, the most important of which are: Providing modern tools and devices that suit this development, ensuring the security and protection of electronic information, intensifying courses and programs in the field of electronic management, and clarifying the obstacles that could cause the failure of this management.

Динамика показателей макроэкономического окружения крупных проектов (по материалам США, Европейского союза, Китая и России)

This article provides an overview of the macroeconomic situation in a number of countries: United States of America, European Union, China and Russia in the 3rd quarter of 2023. Currently important statistical data is used for the analysis, and the mainstream literature is reviewed. The authors mark the dynamics of the main macroeconomic indicators and describe the causes and possible consequences of the changes. The core indicators considered include GDP level, unemployment rate, inflation rate, key rate, consumer spending, government spending and others. The budget of each country is analyzed. For some indicators, the authors make forecasts of changes in indicators for future periods, taking into account various conjunctural factors. The article was written within the framework of the Crisis Management Center of the School of Public Administration, Lomonosov Moscow State University.

A quest for Selective Decentralization. The case of Municipal Schools in Chile

Under the argument that the existing municipal administration of public schools in Chile is poor and inequitable, a law was passed in 2017 thereby all schools will be handed over to 70 centrally dependent Local Education Services (LES). We hypothesize that a significant number of schools would do better if they remain administered by the municipal level. Based upon a data base between 2014 and 2018, we show that students from schools in fiscally autonomous municipalities exhibit better results in standardized national tests, which supports a quest for a “selective decentralization” model, thereby only bad performed schools are made dependent on LES.