Public Internet Forums Research Articles

Fatal road crash under the influence of 4-fluoroamphétamine (4-FA) and cannabis : Who is guilty?

4-fluoroamphetamine (4-FA) is a new stimulant psychoactive substance identified for the first time in Europe in 2008. Recently, 4-FA has been identified in driving under the influence of drugs population in Belgium [1] . However, postmortem data about 4-FA are sparse. The aim is to present the results of post-mortem toxicological investigations of a fatal road crash and discuss the 4-FA and cannabis influence. A 17 years-old male driver of a scooter died in a road crash, alone against a pole on the public road. The local prosecutor ordered an autopsy which allowed collecting hemothorax blood, cardiac blood, peripheral blood, bile, urine and gastric contents. He had no medical history. Biological specimens were submitted to standard toxicological analyses including screenings with UHPLC-MS/MS, UHPLC-DAD and GC-MS. GC-MS method was used to confirm fluoroamphetamine isomer. 4-FA was quantified with a specific and validated HPLC-MS/MS method on a 3200 QTRAP mass spectrometer. Sample preparation included a glacial acetonitrile/formic acid defecation. MRM transitions used were 154.1 > 109.3 and 83.1 for 4-FA and 199.2 > 165.2 for MDMA-D5 (internal standard). At autopsy, death was due to a high kinetic thoracic trauma, resulting in a major and rapid blood spoliation (rupture of the aortic isthmus and mediastinal rupture). Toxicological investigation only identified THC, THC-OH and THC-COOH (3.4, 0.9 and 10.6 ng/mL, respectively) and 4-FA (20.5 ng/mL) in peripheral blood. 4-FA was as well quantified in hemothorax blood (12 ng/mL), cardiac blood (28.5 ng/mL), bile (139 ng/mL), urine (1435 ng/mL) and gastric contents (100 ng/mL). 4-FA was responsible for a false-positive amphetamine EMIT urine testing (Atellica®, Siemens). While the cannabis influence was established, the influence of 4-FA was questionable at time of death. The high urine concentration associated to a low blood concentration of 4-FA was in favor of an old intake, more than 12 hours before death [2] . 4-FA pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamics relationship is still not elucidated. Then, a review of drug users’ public internet forums revealed that 4-FA effects last about six hours, up to 12 hours. In conclusion, the influence of 4-FA was unlikely at the time of the accident. This case report provides analytical data that could support subsequent toxicological result interpretation in forensic cases involving 4-FA.

Intersection of the Web-Based Vaping Narrative With COVID-19: Topic Modeling Study.

BackgroundThe COVID-19 outbreak was designated a global pandemic on March 11, 2020. The relationship between vaping and contracting COVID-19 is unclear, and information on the internet is conflicting. There is some scientific evidence that vaping cannabidiol (CBD), an active ingredient in cannabis that is obtained from the hemp plant, or other substances is associated with more severe manifestations of COVID-19. However, there is also inaccurate information that vaping can aid COVID-19 treatment, as well as expert opinion that CBD, possibly administered through vaping, can mitigate COVID-19 symptoms. Thus, it is necessary to study the spread of inaccurate information to better understand how to promote scientific knowledge and curb inaccurate information, which is critical to the health of vapers. Inaccurate information about vaping and COVID-19 may affect COVID-19 treatment outcomes.ObjectiveUsing structural topic modeling, we aimed to map temporal trends in the web-based vaping narrative (a large data set comprising web-based vaping chatter from several sources) to indicate how the narrative changed from before to during the COVID-19 pandemic.MethodsWe obtained data using a textual query that scanned a data pool of approximately 200,000 different domains (4,027,172 documents and 361,100,284 words) such as public internet forums, blogs, and social media, from August 1, 2019, to April 21, 2020. We then used structural topic modeling to understand changes in word prevalence and semantic structures within topics around vaping before and after December 31, 2019, when COVID-19 was reported to the World Health Organization.ResultsBroadly, the web-based vaping narrative can be organized into the following groups or archetypes: harms from vaping; Vaping Regulation; Vaping as Harm Reduction or Treatment; and Vaping Lifestyle. Three archetypes were observed prior to the emergence of COVID-19; however, four archetypes were identified post–COVID-19 (Vaping as Harm Reduction or Treatment was the additional archetype). A topic related to CBD product preference emerged after COVID-19 was first reported, which may be related to the use of CBD by vapers as a COVID-19 treatment.ConclusionsOur main finding is the emergence of a vape-administered CBD treatment narrative around COVID-19 when comparing the web-based vaping narratives before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. These results are key to understanding how vapers respond to inaccurate information about COVID-19, optimizing treatment of vapers who contract COVID-19, and possibly minimizing instances of inaccurate information. The findings have implications for the management of COVID-19 among vapers and the monitoring of web-based content pertinent to tobacco to develop targeted interventions to manage COVID-19 among vapers.

“Shop Until You Drop”: Valuing Fentanyl Analogs on a Swedish Internet Forum

Fentanyl analogs are synthetic opioids used for pain treatment and palliative care, which are also sought after by drug users for their psychoactive properties. Clandestinely produced fentanyl has caused an overdose crises of unprecedented scale in the United States. In Sweden, the retail purchase, possession, and use of some analogs are legal, providing opiate users with a legal alternative, until the process of scheduling is finished. The continuous process of scheduling and introduction of slightly modified variants implies that there is much uncertainty regarding the potency and quality of newly introduced analogs. We examine user perceptions of fentanyl analogs in a thematic analysis of the public internet forum, Flashback, from 2012 to 2019. In 24 threads on fentanyl analogs, posters shared and discussed information on the emergence of new analogs, their desirability and prices, adverse health effects, and eventual scheduling.

Beyond cost and carbon: The multidimensional co-benefits of low carbon transitions in Europe

The paper explores the myriad potential benefits of four low-carbon transitions beyond those in the environmental or economic domain. Drawn from a rich set of original mixed methods data—across expert interviews, focus groups, and public internet forums—we examine the presumed multidimensional, qualitative co-benefits to nuclear power in France, solar photovoltaics in Germany, electric vehicles in Norway, and smart meters in Great Britain. We catalogue 128 identified prospective co-benefits to these four European low-carbon transitions, 30 for nuclear power, 30 for solar photovoltaic panels, 26 for electric vehicles and 42 for smart meters. Tellingly, 37 of these collective benefits are identified as economic and 14 environmental, but the remaining ones illustrate a broader spectrum of technical benefits (31 in total), social benefits (30 in total) and political benefits (16 in total). After presenting this body of evidence, the paper then discusses these benefits more deeply in terms of complementarity, temporality, scale, actors, and incumbency. We conclude with insights for energy and climate research and policy more broadly.

The whole systems energy injustice of four European low-carbon transitions

The need for multi-scalar analysis of energy and low-carbon systems is becoming more apparent as a way to assess the holistic socioeconomic and environmental impacts of energy transitions across a variety of scales and lifecycle stages. This paper conducts a whole systems energy justice analysis of four European low-carbon transitions—nuclear power in France, smart meters in Great Britain, electric vehicles in Norway, and solar photovoltaic panels in Germany. It asks: in what ways may each of these transitions result in injustices that extend beyond communities and countries, i.e., across the whole system? It utilizes a mixed-methods research design based on 64 semi-structured research interviews with experts across all four transitions, five public focus groups, and the collection of 58 comments from twelve public internet forums to answer this question. Drawing inductively from these data, the paper identifies and analyzes 44 injustices spread across three spatial scales. Micro scale injustices concern immediate local impacts on family livelihood, community health and the environment. Meso scale injustices include national-scale issues such as rising prices for electricity and gas or unequal access to low-carbon technology. Macro scale injustices include global issues such as the extraction of minerals and metals and the circulation of waste flows. The paper then discusses these collective injustices in terms of their spatiality and temporality, before offering conclusions for energy and climate research and policy.

Codeine Addiction and Internet Forum Use and Support: Qualitative Netnographic Study.

BackgroundThe use of codeine as an analgesic is well-recognized, but there are increasing concerns that for some individuals continued use may lead to misuse, dependence, and fatalities. Research suggests that those affected may represent a hard-to-reach group who do not engage with formal treatment services.ObjectiveThis study sought to explore the experiences of people with self-reported addiction to codeine and, specifically, how a social media forum is used to communicate with others about this issue.MethodsUsing a qualitative netnographic methodology, the social media forum Mumsnet was used, with permission, and searches were undertaken in 2016 of any posts that related to codeine and addiction. A total of 95 relevant posts were identified; a purposive sample of 25 posts was selected to undertake subsequent six-stage thematic analysis and development of emerging themes. These 25 posts were posted between 2003 and 2016 and comprised 757 individual posts.ResultsIndividuals created posts to actively request help in relation to usually their own, but occasionally their partner’s or relative’s, problems relating to codeine use and self-reported “addiction.” Varying levels of detail were provided in narratives of problematic codeine use. There were both positive and negative descriptions of side effects emerging, problems experiencing withdrawal, and failed attempts to discontinue codeine use. Mainly positive and supportive responses to posts were identified from those with either self-reported health profession experience or lay respondents, who often drew on their own experiences of similar problems. Treatment advice emerged in two main ways, either as signposting to formal health services or to informal approaches and often anecdotal advice about how to taper or use cold turkey techniques. Some posts were more critical of the original poster, and arguments and challenges to advice were not uncommon. Shame and stigma were often associated with users’ posts and, while there was a desire to receive support and treatment advice in this forum, users often wanted to keep their codeine use hidden in other aspects of their lives. Distinctly different views emerged as to whether responsibility lay with prescribers or patients. Some users expressed anger toward doctors and their prescribing practices.ConclusionsThis study provides a unique insight into how a public internet forum is used by individuals to confirm and seek support about problematic codeine use and of the ways others respond. The pseudonymous use of internet forums for such information and variation in treatment options suggested by often lay respondents suggest that increased formal support and awareness about codeine addiction are needed. There may be opportunities for providing further support directly on such online forums. Improvements in prescribing codeine and in the over-the-counter supply of codeine are required to prevent problematic use from occurring.

Raising a Child with Type 1 Diabetes and Autism—Using Social Media to Identify Barriers and Facilitators

Children with both T1D and autism pose a distinct challenge, and there is exceedingly little research on T1D self-management in this special population and few resources to guide healthcare providers (HCPs) on how to best partner with families. This qualitative study used an exploratory inductive thematic approach to analyze a public Internet forum authored by caregivers to children with both T1D and autism. All 398 posts were imported into NVivo 11 (QSR International). After codebook development, the primary coders (TO, SO) coded 10% and then 20% of the dataset, with Cohen’s kappa .994 and .996, respectively. With high inter-rater reliability established, coding of all remaining posts was then completed. Inductive thematic analysis revealed the following themes: 1) Parents of children with T1D and autism yearned for support and did not feel understood by the autism community or the T1D community; social media provided much-needed peer support from families that understood the unique experience of raising a child with both conditions. 2) Numerous coping techniques were discussed, including focusing on T1D management first, as glucose levels could affect behavior; establishing concrete rules and routines; and advice on types of needles and technology that might be better tolerated in this unique population. 3) Descriptions of the healthcare experience, including the helpfulness of multidisciplinary teams with endocrinologists and autism specialists jointly developing treatment plans. 4) Challenges in school and camp settings, as well as challenges in finding caregivers. 5) Sensory issues precluding use of technology such as insulin pumps, and the utility of tubeless pumps in overcoming some of these challenges. This study provides valuable insight for HCPs into the challenges these families face and lays the groundwork for future studies to evaluate how HCPs can best care for and advise this unique population. Disclosure T. Oser: None. S.M. Oser: None. K. Bangalore Krishna: None. D.E. Hale: None.

Appliquer les catégories d’observation discursives pour décrire les interactions dans les forums de discussion

The paper presents the objectives, the scenario and the conclusions of an exploratory action-research whose aim was to determine how the descriptive categories elaborated in the field of discourse analysis can be used to explain and to explore the genre of online discussion in public internet forums in the context of foreign language learning. I discuss first a list of descriptive categories elaborated in my research in the form of an observation grid in order to outline the genre specificity of online discussion. Then I describe the application of the observation grid in my research.

Nod and wave: An Internet study of the codeine intoxication phenomenon

BackgroundThe non-medical use of pharmaceutical opioids such as codeine is of increasing public health concern. The aim of the study was to describe codeine intoxication experiences amongst recreational drug users, as posted on public Internet forums. MethodsInternet searches were carried out by using the specific key word ‘codeine’ and in combination with ‘experience’, ‘report’, ‘trip’ and ‘forum’. 96 Trip reports and 156 thread discussions relating to the sole use of codeine were analysed using the empirical phenomenological psychological (EPP) method. Nine themes and 72 categories emerged. ResultsNarratives illustrated transitions between medical and non-medical use of codeine for dulling of emotional and/or physical pain, opiate withdrawal management and for intoxication. Codeine's appeal centred on access via family medicine cabinets, prescribers and pharmacies. Discussion and dissemination of indigenous harm reduction tactics included the learning to appreciate codeine's effect via moderated use in optimal settings, avoidance of tolerance by use of informed dosing schedules, cold water extraction of codeine, and using codeine as an alternative to stronger opioids. Oral and rectal routes were favoured, with awareness on forums of the harms of intravenous and subcutaneous injection. 250mg was recommended to optimise recreational outcomes. Forum users describe potentiating practices and using over-the-counter medications to improve intoxication experiences and reduce unpleasant side effects. Dissociative effects, ability to ignore physical and emotional pain, codeine induced synaesthesia and altered states of consciousness were described. Overdose was characterised by anaesthesia, severe chest and stomach pain, respiratory depression, panic and fear of death. ConclusionEfforts to ensure legitimate codeine use for pain and reduction of aberrant behaviours centre on evidence based screening, risk minimisation, prescription monitoring and specific treatment protocols. This study shows that internet drug forums drive communal knowhow and indigenous harm reduction strategies, and warrant consideration as viable public health mechanisms for informing users.

Methoxetamine (MXE) – A Phenomenological Study of Experiences Induced by a “Legal High” from the Internet

Methoxetamine (MXE), a ketamine analogue, is one of the new “legal highs” sold on the Internet. The aim of this qualitative study was to provide an initial understanding of what characterizes the experiences induced by MXE. Anonymously written reports (33 persons) on the effects of MXE were collected from public Internet forums and analyzed using the Empirical Phenomenological Psychological Method. The analysis generated 10 themes: (1) preparation, motivation and anticipation; (2) initial effects; (3) malfunction of cognitive processes stabilizing normal state; (4) inner personal processes and learning; (5) emotional processes; (6) altered sensory perception; (7) dissolution and transition; (8) spiritual and transcendental experiences; (9) effects and processes after the experience; (10) re-dosing and addiction. MXE induced a heavily altered state of consciousness. The effects were similar to those induced by classic hallucinogens (such as LSD, psilocybin) and the dissociative ketamine. MXE seemed to have quite a high abuse potential. Beside the positive effects described, negative effects like fear and anxiety were also reported. Acceptance was considered the best coping strategy. Dissolution of identity and body often culminated in spiritual and transcendental experiences. More research is needed on safety issues, how to minimize harm, and the motivation for using legal highs.

Shakespeare and American Popular Culture Since the 1990s: From Will Power!(1996) to Hamlet's Blackberry(2010)

The 1990s was the period in which Shakespeare enjoyed immense public popularity but was under attack from many who questioned his usefulness and relevance. Analyzing self-help books from Will Power!(1996) to Hamlet’s Blackberry(2010), this study aims to explore the relationship between Shakespeare and American popular culture since the 1990s. Although the booming explosion in Shakespeare films is now past, the energy once devoted to Shakespeare on films has moved on to different media. Constantly reproducing and distributing Shakespeare, self-help books have been the important sites where notions about Shakespeare’s cultural significance can be created and debated. Since the 1990s many self-help books have promoted Shakespeare as a great mentor, teacher and coach to solve the problems which are faced by common readers. He teaches almost everything from psychology, management, leadership, social media, to daily issues. Claiming that Shakespeare was the foremost genius at understanding human nature, these books defend him against the critics who assert that he needs not to be taught in schools any more. Celebrating Shakespeare’s universality, timelessness, and genius, popular culture has tried to recuperate Shakespeare’s great legacy and construct its own cultural authority. This popular effort is still going on in the new millenium while his relevance is being discussed in public Internet forums.

Public Internet Forums: Can They Enhance Argumentative Writing Skills of Second Language Learners?

AbstractImproving university students’ writing skills is always a challenge. In a third‐year French composition course, the researchers introduced the use of public Internet discussion forums to see if that would help achieve the argumentative writing skills goals that were set for this study. The results show that participation in the forums had a positive influence on students’ argumentative skills. The forums forced them to choose a topic, read about it, obtain different points of view, and develop their own, therefore entering a community of practice where language accuracy was important. Students felt that it was beneficial to their intercultural competence and that it had a positive impact on their confidence to use their second language because they were able to interact with native speakers.

Book Review: Digital Jesus: The Making of a New Christian Fundamentalist Community on the Internet

Digital Jesus: The Making of New Christian Fundamentalist Community on the Internet. Robert Glenn Howard. New York, NY: New York University Press, 2011. 213 pp. $75 hbk. $24 pbk.Ask most Americans about the end of the world, and they might mention The Late Great Planet Earth, Hal Lindsey's 1970 bestseller (still in print) that tied the apocalypse to events in Israel and the Middle East. Or they might mention the sixteen LeftBehind novels by Tim LaHaye and Jerry Jenkins that captivated tens of millions of readers with stories of violence and destruction inflicted on the earth after the rapture.Newsy Americans are likely to recall Christian radio host Harold Camping's much publicized prediction that Judgment Day would take place last May. They might even point to the Mayan calendar that ends with flood in 2012. Almost everyone, though, will overlook thousands of websites, where, according to University of Wisconsin communication arts scholar Robert Glenn Howard, ritual deliberation on the end times is widespread. Fortunately, Howard corrects this oversight, using interviews, participant observation, and historical study of Internet discourse.According to Howard, end times deliberation began on the Internet in the 1980s as posts to Usenet newsgroups, but these messages were likely to elicit derision, so they migrated to private email lists where outsiders would dismiss or ridicule them. By 1995, however, interest in end times deliberation had grown large enough to support the creation of the newsgroup alt.bible.prophecy, the community's first public Internet forum. At the same time, Web browsers and search engines were making the World Wide Web easily accessible, so Web pages about the end times began to multiply. Subsequently, Web 2.0 technology with centrally moderated blogs and discussion forums proved to be an ideal medium for end times communities, which strive to uphold tenets of Christian fundamentalism while they foster discussion. Howard stopped counting end times websites years ago when he reached five hundred.One of the most prominent end times websites is Bible Prophecy Corner, which Marilyn Agee has run since 1996. Having mystical experiences such as reading the Bible and seeing a rectangle of light shining on the command to publish and conceal not (Jeremiah 50:2), Agee writes with certainty that she is being led by God. Bible Prophecy Corner showcases Agee's apocalyptic timeline, her explications of signs of the last days, and her three books. Not surprisingly, her website provides few links to other sources, but it does encourage reader emails, archived in massive Pro and Con index. These email exchanges, though, never change Agee's mind, and she ignores criticisms of her penchant for making false predictions, which earned her the sobriquet Queen of Date Setters. Marilyn's blog was as deliberative as it appeared, Howard observes. …

HOW THE INTERNET IS GIVING BIRTH (TO) A NEW SOCIAL ORDER

The expansion of technological access has led to substantial shifting in opportunities to connect geographically dispersed members of marginalized groups. Digital networks offer less powerful individuals access to challenging the social order. The Internet, believed to be inherently democratic, has produced a new shift in the politics of pregnancy. This study examines the culture of three public Internet forum sites dedicated to experiences of pregnant women. Where online support forums for breast cancer and other ‘ill’ communities have been researched previously, pregnancy falls into a unique divide between infirm and well. Pregnant women are not ill based on their status as pregnant, yet many suffer ailments and illnesses as a result of their pregnancies. Additionally, the burden of uncertainty shouldered by pregnant women, with fears of miscarriage, harming the fetus, and even personal death, haunt most throughout their pregnancies. Yet, previous research has shown that doctors are often found to be unsympathetic to these fears and discomforts, socializing women toward a culture of maternal sacrifice, whereby discounting their suffering as ‘good for the baby’. Online forums have emerged, offering pregnant women space to challenge the culture which dictates suffering in silence. Our analysis reveals that participants use online pregnancy forums to ask questions, gauge the normalcy of their physical and psychological experiences, and vent their frustrations to an audience that is both sympathetic and supportive. Online forums for pregnant women offer empowerment through information sharing and entitle women to ask more questions, demand more information, and challenge their medical providers.

Heaven and Hell—A Phenomenological Study of Recreational Use of 4-HO-MET in Sweden

The psychoactive substance 4-HO-MET (4-hydroxy-N-methyl-N-ethyltryptamine) with psychedelic qualities is one of many legal so-called Internet drugs. The aim of this qualitative study was to establish an understanding of what characterizes its recreational use. Very little is known about the effects of this substance. Twenty-five anonymous Swedish experience reports (from persons aged 18–30 years) from public Internet forums were analyzed using the Empirical Phenomenological Psychological Method. The analysis produced 37 categories that were compiled into nine general themes: (1) motivation, preparation and expectation; (2) initial effects; (3) change of perception; (4) unfiltered awareness and intensified flow of information; (5) lateral cognition; (6) border between subject and object is erased; (7) heaven; (8) hell; and (9) subsiding effects. An understanding of the chronological happenings, called The Process, appeared out of the general structure. Drastic changes in cognitive, emotional and bodily functions were described. The motivation for use seemed to be driven by a strong curiosity. The experiences shifted between “heaven” and “hell,” but participants appeared satisfied and ready to repeat the experience. The experiences described show great similarity with classic psychedelic substances as LSD or psilocybin. More research is needed about health hazards or possible therapeutic potentials.

(Re)Constructing the European Past: Christianity and the French Religious Memory

(Re)Constructing the European Past: Christianity and the French Religious Memory Yelena Mazour‐Matusevich If you forgive anyone his sins, they are forgiven;: if you retain the sins of any, they are retained. (John 20:21‐23) Now, when a united Europe has become a political and economic reality, European nations must politely forget that they used to be hereditary enemies and become good neighbors instead. The European Union was, after all, at its beginnings, not only a project about peace, and economic exchanges, it was also about forgiveness and grace. In a sense, constructing a common Europe is an unprecedented Christian experiment in and of itself for it consists of applying the essentially Christian idea of total forgiveness1 to entire nations, compelling millions of people to put their mutual resentments aside, pardoning each other for all eternity. Alas, a simple trip through Europe easily demonstrates to a naïve tourist that love for geographic neighbors is not on the menu. The pioneering experiment of transforming an essentially personal action of forgiveness into a collective effort has proved to be an enormous challenge. Europe’s long history, like any history, was filled with wars, massacres and prejudices, and collective national memories, with their extensive lists of grievances against the historical other, represent mental barriers for the creation of Europe’s new identity. Indeed, this identity cannot be forged without each country confronting its own national past or rather, the way each nation views and evaluates this past, for, in the context of a historical narrative, “subjectivity is truth and truth is subjectivity.”2 Confronting European historical subjectivities is particularly urgent with regard to the question of Europe’s Christian identity. The recent 2004‐2009 polemics over the inscription of Christian references in the preamble to the European Constitution reveal the significance of the present moment, when each European country must face not only its own collective memory and memories of other Christian nations but also formulate the place of religion in the new Europe.3 The present essay will focus on the case of France and the French religious identity and memory. Western man today is characterized by: An innocent mind and a heavy memory. Emile Poulat I imprudently presented the first draft of this paper at a conference in 1998. Never would I have dared to embark on such a perilous venture again if, after duly scrutinizing the current French media and public Internet forums, I had not happened to notice that the situation in France has not changed substantially in twelve years. It turns out that my initial analysis of France’s major tendencies in dealing with its Christian past is still valid. The tendencies in question are not equally represented in terms of frequency or influence, nor are they completely isolated from each other. The first, the most common trend, is that which journalist and famous essayist Jean‐Claude Guillebaud called “modernité appauvrie,”“an impoverished modernity.”4 People holding this attitude feel estranged from their national past, which they perceive as incomprehensible and, most importantly, no longer theirs. This popular opinion might have an intellectual variation whose proponents consider France’s history too national to be used as a common European foundation and propose to see Europe’s future as constructed from a tabula rasa, from now on. Although lacking even the most basic understanding of what religion is (Jean‐Claude Eslin),5 this dismissive tendency views Christianity as a burden, which, together with the rest of the national memory, is too complicated to take on. In a sense, this outlook is neither anti‐Christian nor anti‐religious per se because it expresses the general and growing alienation of French society from its collective memory, a phenomenon Eslin called “the French without France.”6 Here we will call it the “anti‐history” position (not to be confused with anti‐historical). It does not deny history; rather, it wants none. The second attitude is what Guy Coq, author of Démocratie, religion, éducation (1993) and Secularity and Republic (1995), calls “vulgate républicaine.”7 This ideological position dates from the good old days of the “war of two Frances,” when progressive, secular forces opposed the traditional, Catholic...