Public Infrastructure Projects Research Articles

The Social Value of Public Infrastructure Works

Public infrastructure projects hold significant social value as they provide essential services, spur economic development, create job opportunities, and enhance quality of life by facilitating access to basic amenities and reducing commute times. This study aimed to assess the social impact of public infrastructure projects in the northern region of Peru, focusing on indicators such as access to basic services, inequality reduction, poverty alleviation, economic growth, and citizen well-being. Employing a quantitative approach with a non-experimental and descriptive design, the research engaged a sample of 124 engineering professionals who were surveyed to gauge their perceptions of public infrastructure project management in the northern region of Peru. The findings reveal predominantly negative perceptions towards the management of public infrastructure projects in the northern region of Peru, indicating the presence of deficiencies or irregularities in project execution. It is recommended to propose measures aimed at enhancing transparency, fostering citizen participation, and promoting accountability in the management of public infrastructure projects. Received: 12 March 2024 / Accepted: 20 April 2024 / Published: 5 May 2024

Persisting Cost Overruns in Public Infrastructure Projects: Lessons From the Belgian Case

Public authorities are expected to provide a salient infrastructure network, with only limited financial resources. However, many of these infrastructure projects go over budget and, therefore, research about these cost overruns is necessary to better understand the dynamics at work and provide solutions. We conclude that in Belgium, and broader, solutions need to be found for relational issues internal and external to the project core. Before a lot of attention was given to technical and legal project aspects, while our insights show that we should focus more on the relational aspects.

Mediation of Socioenvironmental Conflict in Macrodrainage Works: The Experience of the Municipal Government of Guarujá, São Paulo State, Brazil

Urban growth has been correlated with substantial changes in land use, triggering socio-environmental conflicts. In Brazil, the lack of a tradition in mediating socio-environmental conflicts is evident through numerous lawsuits that often take years to reach a resolution. This study emphasized the actions taken by the Municipal Government of Guarujá (PMG) in 2022 as a tool for resolving socio-environmental conflicts without resorting to litigation. The research focused on the specific case of a macro-drainage project in the Santo Antônio neighborhood, which involved the relocation of 29 families from their homes with equivalent compensation guided by a Terms of Conduct Adjustment (TAC). This qualitative study was grounded in document analysis, a systematic literature review, and interviews with stakeholders. The study aimed to analyze how mediation techniques could contribute to resolving socio-environmental conflicts between public infrastructure projects and the local population. The research findings indicated that the PMG's initiatives were essential in creating a mediation space where, through dialogue, officials involved in the relocation process addressed the families' concerns, even amending clauses within the Comparative Data Market Method for Urban Areas, used for compensation payments, in accordance with legal instruments. This initiative led all the families involved to adhere to the negotiated terms, avoiding litigation and facilitating the project's realization.

Public –Private Partnership (PPP) and Management of Public Infrastructure in Enugu State

.The study appraised the Public-PrivatePartnership and Management of Public Infrastructures in Enugu State.. To achieve the objectives, three research questions were raised while three hypotheses were formulated. The study adopted a descriptive survey research design. The study employed secondary and primary sources of data. The collected data were analyzed through the use of mean score. T-test statistical technique was applied in testing the hypotheses. The findings revealed that public infrastructures have been managed properly through PPP in Enugu state (where value t = 65.588 and critical value = 1.99), that the concession agreement pattern improved the development of public infrastructures in Enugu state (where value t = 68. 856 and critical value = 1.99) and that Limited financial resources are some of the challenges facing the operations of the PPP in infrastructural development in Enugu state (where value t = 55.434 and critical value = 1.99). The study concluded that in Enugu State, Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) have showcased transformative potential in the management of public infrastructure. By leveraging on private sector expertise and investment, Enugu State has witnessed improved infrastructural development, from roads to utilities. These collaborations enhance efficiency, innovation, and timely project delivery. The study recommended that to strengthen Regulatory Frameworks: the Enugu State government should enhance its regulatory and policy environment to provide clarity and consistency offering a secure foundation for Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) and encouraging private sector engagement in public infrastructure projects.

Critical success factors for cost overrun minimization in public construction projects in developing countries: the case of Ghana

Purpose It is widely accepted that one criterion for determining if a construction project is successful is whether it is completed within the expected budget. There have been advancements in the management of building projects throughout time but cost overruns remain a key concern in the construction sector internationally, particularly in emerging economies such as Ghana. This study aims to answer the question, “What are the critical success factors (CSFs) that can assist reduce cost overruns in public sector infrastructure projects in the Ghanaian construction industry?” Design/methodology/approach This study used a quantitative survey method. The questionnaire was pre-tested by interviewing 15 contractors to ascertain the validity of the content. Factor analysis and multiple regression were adopted to analyze the data. Findings This study discovered that the critical factors that can reduce cost overruns in construction projects in Ghana are directly linked to five themes: early contractor involvement in the project planning stage, adequate funding, good project team relations, competent managers/supervisors and project participant incentives/bonuses. This study identifies indestructible, empirically measurable important success criteria for reducing cost overruns in public building projects in Ghana. Practical implications When well thought through from the project initiation stage to completion, these critical successes can also be used to deal with damaging economic effects such as allocative inefficiency of scarce resources, further delays, contractual disputes, claims and litigation, project failure and total abandonment. Originality/value The uniqueness of this research resides in the fact that it is, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, a first-of-its-kind investigation of the CSFs for reducing cost overruns in public building projects in developing countries.

Investigating the Value of Parallel Pipeline Projects for Water Supply: A Contingent Valuation Study in South Korea

Parallel pipeline projects can contribute to ensuring a safe and stable water supply and preventing or mitigating losses caused by water pipeline accidents. However, because these projects require a significant investment, feasibility tests are essential prior to their implementation. Considering the public nature of the water supply, the direct beneficiaries of the project and people from other regions can place value on such projects. Thus, this study estimates the value of parallel pipeline projects using the contingent valuation method (CVM) and the swing weighting technique. We constructed two contingent valuation surveys: one asking about the willingness to pay (WTP) for a parallel pipeline project within the respondent’s region and the other asking about the WTP for a project outside the region. The results show that the annual WTP per household for projects within and outside the region was 113,669 KRW (87.98 USD) and 5493 KRW (4.25 USD), respectively. These results indicate that the value perceived by people from outside the region should be considered. Additionally, the results from the swing weighting technique and WTP analysis show that the values that respondents generally consider important and those that can leverage the overall project value are distinct. This study’s results provide insights into the implementation of parallel pipeline projects in South Korea. Furthermore, this study’s analytical framework can be used for the valuation of other public infrastructure projects.

Idealized Influence and Employee Performance in Water Works Development Agencies in Kenya

This study sought to examine the effect of idealized influence on employee performance in water works development agencies (WWDA) in Kenya. It was guided by Transformational Leadership Theory. A descriptive research design and positivist research paradigm was adopted. The population of this study was the 7 Water Works Development Agencies (WWDAs) while the unit of observation was 450 staff in the organizations. Krejcie and Morgan were used to determine the study sample size of 207 respondents. This study employed stratified random sampling in selecting the sample. The study used primary data collected using a semi structured questionnaire. Data analysis was done using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) computer software version 26. Qualitative data collected was analyzed using content analysis and presented in prose form. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics included mean, standard deviation, frequencies, and percentages. The study also computed correlation analysis to measure strength and the direction of linear relationship between variables. Multiple regression models were fitted to the data to determine how the predictor/independent variables affect the response/dependent variable. The study further used hierarchical multiple regression models to measure the moderating effect of legal framework. The findings were presented in tables and figures. The study found that idealized influence has a positive and significant relationship with employee performance in WWDA in Kenya. On moderator, the study found that legal framework has positive significant moderating effect on the relationship between idealized influence and the employee performance in WWDA in Kenya. Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that WWDA should enhance idealized influence among their leaders to improve their performance. This can be achieved by developing a leadership style that exhibits strong ethical and moral values, and by consistently practicing what they preach. Leaders should also be seen as role models, which can inspire their subordinates to emulate their behavior. Additionally, there is a need to establish effective legal frameworks that ensure transparency, fairness, and accountability in the management of public infrastructure projects, particularly those related to water service delivery. Further studies should explore the impact of other factors such as technology, funding, and political will influence employee performance in WWDA in Kenya.

PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP PROCUREMENT TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE DELIVERY: ASSESSING THE MANAGERIAL CAPABILITIES OF PUBLIC-SECTOR ORGANIZATIONS IN AFRICA

The lingering imbalance between infrastructural services demand and supply poses serious threats to the fiscal budget balance from contingent liabilities of African countries. Despite the increasing private investment commitments and adoption of public-private partnership procurement (PPP) options to address the widening infrastructure gaps in Africa, the failure in the delivery of public infrastructure projects is yet a common phenomenon. This study therefore examined the managerial capabilities of public-sector organizations (PSOs), who steer the provisions of public infrastructure, to investigate their readiness to achieve the value for money from private funding and the benefits of PPP options. The study conducted a self-study structured questionnaire survey on professionals in PSOs in Africa, particularly Nigeria, who have been directly involved in the delivery of public infrastructure projects via PPP. The professionals were purposively sampled and the primary data obtained was subjected to descriptive and inferential analysis. The study revealed that the PSOs have internalized about 41 PPP-capabilities for the delivery of public infrastructure projects. Up to 40 PPP-capabilities were exhibited on an average score (41-60%) level, with mean score (MS) value range of 3.13 ≤ MS ≤ 3.70, for the public projects procured. The study established the existence of significant interdependence of p < 0.001, which indicated sufficient correlation between 31 PPP-capabilities and explained the 10 main components of managerial capabilities possessed by the PSOs. Some of the components clustered around public infrastructure planning and adaptability to PPP programme, project delivery parameters and control, suitable public infrastructure procurement knowledge, public policy awareness and innovation, and governance. The study provides information crucial for public infrastructure delivery success towards sustainable national economic recovery and development.

Innovative Approaches in Tax Enforcement and Tax Compliance for Sustainable Economic Development in Nigeria; A Conceptual Review

This paper delves into a conceptual review of the vital role of innovative approaches in tax enforcement and compliance for achieving sustainable economic development in Nigeria. Amidst evolving global economic landscapes, the integration of cutting-edge technologies such as blockchain, data analytics, digital platforms, and real-time reporting has emerged as a powerful catalyst for transforming the nation's tax system. These innovations have significantly streamlined tax processes, facilitating easier tax compliance for individuals and businesses. They have also fostered transparency and trust within the tax system by ensuring secure and tamper-proof tax records and enhancing voluntary compliance. The implementation of these innovative strategies presents a unique opportunity to bolster Nigeria's revenue collection, thereby contributing to sustainable economic development by funding critical public services, infrastructure projects, and socio-economic development initiatives. The paper concludes that the adoption of innovative approaches in tax enforcement is pivotal for sustainable economic development in Nigeria. By promoting compliance and transparency, these technologies contribute to a robust and reliable revenue base essential for funding public services and infrastructure projects. This paper, therefore, recommends investment in digital Infrastructure, implementation of real-time reporting and data analytics, utilisation of data analytics and artificial intelligence and leverage on mobile payment systems.

A decision-support framework for suspension of public infrastructure projects: a combined use of neutrosophic AHP and TOPSIS

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to develop a decision-support framework that can be used by decision-makers to suspend public infrastructure projects. Additionally, the study also investigates how to select the most convenient infrastructure project for suspension.Design/methodology/approachThe proposed framework includes an extensive set of factors and a novel comparison mechanism that can reveal the most convenient infrastructure project to be suspended. A comprehensible literature review and focus group discussion (FGD) sessions were conducted to identify factors that should be considered for suspension. Then, the neutrosophic analytic hierarchy process (N-AHP) method was used to determine the relative importance of the factors. Finally, the proposed comparison mechanism was demonstrated through a hypothetical case study and Technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) analysis.FindingsResults showed that suspension decisions cannot be made merely based on “financial” factors. Instead, the other aspects, namely “Technical and managerial” and “Social and Environmental”, should also be taken into consideration. Second, factors related to the initial investment, cost of refinancing, cash flow, permits and approvals, insufficiency of bidders, degradation of the components, reputation, impact on stakeholders and criticality of the infrastructure were particularly elaborated as the most significant, needing the utmost attention of the decision-makers. Lastly, the results demonstrated that the proposed comparison mechanism has considerable potential to identify the most convenient infrastructure project for suspension.Originality/valuePublic infrastructure projects are often under pressure due to the inflationary state and economic stagnation of countries after major crises. The suspension decision for infrastructure projects necessitates comprehensible assessments to consider all consequences. Studies have widely investigated the contractual and legal aspects of project suspension in light of existing literature. However, little effort has been devoted to identifying the factors that decision-makers should consider before suspending a particular infrastructure project. Furthermore, existing literature does not investigate how to select the most convenient infrastructure project for suspension either. Thus, by developing a specific suspension framework for infrastructure projects by considering various factors, this study is the earliest attempt to examine the contract suspension mechanism of public infrastructure projects. In this respect, the study significantly contributes to the theory of contract management domain and has important managerial implications.

Pengaruh Urbanisasi Dan Kontribusi Sektor Jasa Terhadap Penerimaan Pajak Dengan Kualitas Peraturan Sebagai Variabel Moderating

Taxes are the backbone of a country's revenue, especially developing countries. The higher the tax revenue, the higher the country's ability to fund various government activities such as education, health, defense, social welfare programs, public infrastructure projects, and others. lower-middle income countries have less tax revenue than upper-income countries. Therefore, it is important to find the factors that influence tax revenues in lower-middle income countries. This research was conducted using linear regression with panel-corrected standard errors or known as PCSE. The results of the study show that simultaneously urbanization, the service sector and the moderating variable in the form of the quality of regulations affect tax revenues significantly. While partially, the urbanization has a positive effect on tax revenues. On the other hand, the service sector and regulatory quality have a negative effect on tax revenues. From the results of the moderation regression analysis, it was found that the quality of regulations does not moderate the effect of urbanization on tax revenues. On the contrary, from the interaction with the service sector, it is found that the quality of regulations weakens the negative influence of the service sector on tax revenues.

Factors Influencing Private Participation in Public Infrastructure Projects: The South Asian Experience in the Global Context

This paper takes a global look at the main reasons why both public and pri-vate entities wish to collaborate on infrastructure projects in the form of public-private partnerships. It uses a cross-country panel regression for five South Asian countries between 1997 and 2018. The study finds that PPPs tend to be more common in countries with higher GDP per capita and larger market size. The study suggests that countries with rising exchange rate and countries where governments suffer from heavy external debt burdens are less likely to have PPPs. Countries with substantial foreign exchange reserves and development aid, are found to be less eager to pursue PPPs. The study provides evidence of the importance of the rule of law and control of corruption. Finally, the financial crisis of 2007–2008 is not proved to have negative effect on PPP flows to South Asian countries, manifesting their strong resilience to financial crisis shocks.

Taxation in the Digital Age: An Examination of the Necessity, Feasibility, and Implications of Taxing Virtual Infrastructures

This research paper explores the feasibility, methods, and implications of taxing virtual infrastructures within the evolving digital landscape and economy; considering the proliferation of digital assets, online transactions, and virtual entities, the taxation of virtual infrastructures becomes imminent as an avenue for government to accumulate revenue for effective government administration. The paper examined the objectives of the study through primary data collected from 320 tax professionals and 297 IT experts to explore the impact of virtual infrastructure taxation on government revenues, the feasibility of taxation models, its effects on innovation and investment in the digital sector, and the challenges of cross-border tax strategies. Findings show that although taxation of virtual infrastructures significantly enhances government revenues, contributing to fiscal sustainability and the funding of public services and infrastructure projects, measures must be put in place to cushion the effect of such taxation on investment and innovation in the digital economy, as the taxation of virtual infrastructures were found to hamper investment and innovation significantly. Also, the implementation of modified traditional and emerging taxation models is shown to increase the feasibility of taxing virtual infrastructures, offering opportunities to enhance government revenues while fostering digital innovation. Data analysis, including Pearson correlation and linear regression methods, was employed to assess the relationships between the variables. Moreover, cross-border tax strategies are found to have negative implications for the taxation of virtual infrastructures, including profit shifting, transfer pricing, and competition among countries to attract digital firms. International cooperation and comprehensive tax reforms are suggested to address these challenges and ensure equitable tax contributions. The study underscores the significance of global collaboration in addressing cross-border taxation challenges and recommends the integration of modern tools and technologies to streamline tax processes while developing modified tax methodologies and policies that suit the digital economy.

Seeking the Optimisation of Public Infrastructure Procurement with NEC4 ECC: A Peruvian Case Study

The modern civil engineering and construction sector requires collaborative work environments, learning and trust among all parties involved, qualities that are absent in the Peruvian reality. This study, which is based on an extensive literature review, investigates this challenge. The study reflects upon (i) the current situation of public works procurement in Peru and (ii) the New Engineering Contract (NEC), which has recently been implemented in Peruvian Special Public Infrastructure Projects. Comparisons are presented between the characteristics, documentation and roles of these two systems, with the purpose of understanding and representing the advantages, disadvantages and possibilities of integrating the good contractual management practices of the NEC4 Engineering and Construction Contract into the traditional Peruvian State Contracting Law (Ley de Contrataciones del Estado: LCE). The research is validated through the case study of a high-impact road infrastructure project in the city of Arequipa, Peru, which revealed five main deficiencies from Peruvian procurement processes which hinder good contractual management and, also, facilitated an initial assessment of the challenges and improvement opportunities in public infrastructure procurement. Thus, a contribution is made to closing the knowledge gap regarding the implementation of the NEC4 ECC in public sector works.

Assessing the benefits of high-speed broadband: Lessons from Australia's National Broadband Network (NBN)

This study reviews the economic benefits analysis conducted in 2014 for the National Broadband Network (NBN), one of Australia's largest ever public infrastructure projects. The review identifies that the NBN's benefits were overstated due to error by an estimated $17–20 billion in 2014 present value terms, an amount sufficient to eliminate the NBN's forecast net economic benefits. To provide an updated view on the benefits of high-speed broadband in 2022, a stated choice experiment is conducted, finding that the WTP has grown since 2014 at an annual real rate of 8.8 percent for download speeds and 11.5 percent for upload speeds. Even at these growth rates, however, the benefits of the NBN remain materially lower than forecast in 2014. Further, the analysis finds high heterogeneity in the household WTP, with smaller and lower-income households reluctant to pay a premium for speeds much faster than 50 Mbps, indicating that the adoption of the fastest available broadband speeds is likely to remain low. The study highlights the potential value of cost-benefit analyses, but also the risks, particularly where they are relied on to justify enduring extensions of government ownership and control. The paper concludes by identifying learnings for policymakers and cost-benefit analysis practitioners seeking to assess and optimize the economic value of public infrastructure investments.

Influence of Knowledge Acquisition Practices on the Performance of County Development Projects in Meru County Government

Public infrastructure projects have progressed at a moderate rate since independence. The information provided by the Kenyan government in 2014 regarding their vision for 2030, aiming to make Kenya an internationally competitive and prosperous nation, shows that the slow progress in implementing public infrastructure projects has resulted in inadequate road networks, underdeveloped public facilities, a lack of connectivity between rural areas and industrial hubs, insufficient measures to mitigate challenges in agricultural regions, and a decline in formerly thriving industries. County governments face a significant challenge in effectively utilizing knowledge management within project management to maximize their outcomes. This research aimed to ascertain whether knowledge acquisition practices influences performance of county development projects in Meru County Government. The research was conducted in a descriptive manner. It targeted a total of 139 respondents from nine Sub-counties in Meru County, including members of county assemblies (MCAs), sub-county departmental heads, project management committee members, and county chief officers. A sample of 103 individuals was selected from the population to participate in the survey. Structured questionnaires were used as the primary research tool to collect data from the population. The responses were coded and categorized accordingly. The data collected was inputted into SPSS 27.0 and MS Excel for further computational analysis. The study revealed a strong correlation coefficient, with an R value of 0.897, indicating a high level of correlation between the variables. The adjusted R-squared value, which was 0.801, suggested that variations in county development projects were significantly influenced by the independent variable. The study's findings suggest that knowledge acquisition had a positive impact on the performance of the county development projects in Meru County. To enhance this positive influence, the study recommends that the public service engage with technical experts in specific fields for knowledge creation, emphasize the value of employees, organize formal training sessions for new knowledge creation, plan seminars for knowledge sharing, and ensure that staff members are trained in diverse tasks to facilitate information exchange. Furthermore, it is recommended that training programs encompass a wide range of tasks and duties to promote knowledge sharing among staff.

The impact of the implementation of the “One Belt, One Road” initiative on the economy and well-being of the participating countries

Considering the important position of Azerbaijan in the “One Belt, One Road” initiative (BRI), the issue of the effectiveness of our country’s investments within this initiative is of great importance. On the other hand, given the complexity of evaluating the effectiveness of public infrastructure projects, the article examines the research conducted on this initiative and the consequences of future projects. At the same time, a classification of such effects is proposed. Two effects of infrastructure projects, the ultimate goal of which is to increase the welfare of the population – a direct impact on households and an impact on the welfare of the population through improving business efficiency. Hypotheses are put forward to explain some of the effects.

Exploring Pre-Construction Activities in Infrastructure Projects That Can Benefit from Contractor Involvement

The pre-construction phase of public infrastructure projects is characterized by significant uncertainty as crucial decisions are made with limited information. This early stage of project development is influenced by a multitude of factors and input from various stakeholders. While early contractor involvement (ECI) offers potential benefits for both clients and projects, the timing and selection of tasks for involving the contractor are critical to achieving these benefits. This study seeks to identify key pre-construction activities in public infrastructure projects and pinpoint the activities that stand to gain the most from ECI. The research methodology involved conducting semi-structured interviews, organizing seven workshops, and conducting the literature and document studies. Through these efforts, the study identified a total of 20 pre-construction activities, among which 5 activities emerged as the most favorable candidates for ECI, while 5 others were deemed less suitable. The findings underscore a consensus that involving contractor expertise during the Brief Development sub-phase holds significant promise. Notably, activities associated with planning, environmental considerations, and technical aspects related to the scope clarification, were found to be highly amenable to ECI. Activities addressing uncertainty management received particular attention, with clients valuing contractors’ practical experience in risk assessment and mitigation. Additionally, contractors’ insights into planning, activity dependencies, and their contributions to health, safety, and environmental plans were highly regarded. However, activities, categorized under the more technical sub-phases of Concept Development and Detailed Engineering yielded mixed results, while those falling within the predominantly social and political domain and involving political processes and societal impact, were viewed as less suitable for early contractor involvement. These findings emphasize the need to adopt a systematic and consistent approach to pre-construction activities, highlighting that ECI should not be applied as a one-size-fits-all solution. The interview results somewhat contrast with the literature findings, which indicate that the early conceptual phase is most beneficial as the contractor impact is highest. To some extent, the client, contractor, and consultant still see their benefit and strategy before the good of the project.

Automated Detection of Social Conflict Drivers in Civil Infrastructure Projects Using Natural Language Processing

Early detection and mitigation of social conflict in civil infrastructure projects is essential due to its significant impact on project performance and social governance. Nevertheless, there is no scientific system for monitoring conflict drivers in a timely manner in practice. Furthermore, previous studies of social conflict in the civil engineering and management domains have relied on manual literature reviews and case studies. Although these qualitative approaches have provided context-specific insights, they are limited in their generalizability and broad perspectives. Against this backdrop, this study presents an automated process for detecting conflict drivers from news articles using ChatGPT. The authors collected news articles related to civil infrastructure projects implemented in the Republic of Korea using web crawling. Then, ChatGPT was used to extract conflict-related keyphrases from the article collections and classify the keyphrases into predefined conflict drivers. The result showed a notable performance with a micro average F1-score of 85.7%. Moreover, the authors confirmed the validity of the keyphrase extraction and classification results through two illustrative case studies. The proposed process and methods contribute to facilitating data-driven conflict management. Although this study focused on conflict drivers of public infrastructure projects, other types of information extraction tasks can benefit from the presented framework.

Boundary spanning for contractual fairness in public infrastructure projects: its impact on performance and innovation

ABSTRACT While the literature on public-private collaboration in large infrastructure projects stresses both contractual and relational governance mechanisms for good outcomes, less attention has been paid to the role of boundary spanners and the way the contract is enforced in practice. This study contributes by bringing in the concept of contractual fairness building on organizational justice theory. It tests the effect of boundary spanning activities on contractual fairness and their impact on performance and innovation as two different outcomes. Findings indicate that boundary spanning activities positively affect contractual fairness, innovation, and performance, while contractual fairness partly mediates the relationship with performance.