Public Bicycle Share Program Research Articles

Examining equity in accessibility to bike share: A balanced floating catchment area approach

Public bicycle share programs (PBSPs) can play a role in advancing transportation equity if they make bicycling more accessible to disadvantaged populations. In Ontario, Hamilton Bike Share expanded their program in 2018 by adding twelve “equity” stations with the explicit objective of increasing access for under-serviced neighborhoods. In this case study, we investigate differentials in accessibility to stations using a balanced floating catchment area approach and compare accessibility with and without the equity stations. We analyze population interpolated to small cells to better reflect walking to a station and conduct a sensitivity analysis at several walking time thresholds. We then reaggregate the estimated accessibility by income groups for further analysis. Our findings indicate that equity stations increased accessibility for the serviced population at every threshold examined, but the increase was relatively modest especially for population in the bottom 20% of median total household income. • Balanced floating catchment area method applied to measure accessibility to bike share. • Contribution of stations added to increase equity assessed at different thresholds. • Added stations increased accessibility and reduced inequities, albeit only modestly. • Lowest income group has low levels of accessibility, even with “equity” stations. • Location and size of docking stations matters for increasing equity in accessibility.

The Impact of Implementing Public Bicycle Share Programs on Bicycle Crashes

A docked public bicycle share program (PBSP) makes bicycles available to the public. There is limited evidence on the impact of PBSPs on safety. We estimated the impacts of implementing a PBSP on the likelihood of bicycle crashes using a difference in differences approach with repeated cross-sectional survey data (self-reported crashes) collected in 8 Canadian and US cities, from 2012-2014. Relative to control cities (Detroit, Philadelphia, Vancouver), we found that the odds of reporting a bicycling crash did not change after implementing a PBSP (New York, Chicago) and were lower in cities that had existing PBSPs (Boston, Montreal, Toronto).

Quantifying the Bicycle Share Gender Gap

In this paper we examine the gender split in 76,981,561 bicycle share trips made from 2014-2018 for three of the largest public bicycle share programs in the U.S.: Bluebikes (Boston), Citi Bike (New York), and Divvy Bikes (Chicago). Overall, women made only one-quarter of all bicycle share trips from 2014-2018. The proportion of trips made by women increased over time for Citi Bike from 22.6% in 2014 to 25.5% in 2018, but hovered steady around 25% for Bluebikes and Divvy Bikes. Across programs, the gender gap was wider for older bicycle share users.

Evaluating the impact of implementing public bicycle share programs on cycling: the International Bikeshare Impacts on Cycling and Collisions Study (IBICCS)

BackgroundDespite rapid expansion of public bicycle share programs (PBSP), there are limited evaluations of the population-level impacts of these programs on cycling, leaving uncertainty as to whether these programs lead to net health gains at a population level or attract those that already cycle and are sufficiently physically active. Our objective was to determine whether the implementation of PBSPs increased population-level cycling in cities across the US and Canada.MethodsWe conducted repeat cross-sectional surveys with 23,901 residents in cities with newly implemented PBSPs (Chicago, New York), existing PBSPs (Boston, Montreal, Toronto) and no PBSPs (Detroit, Philadelphia, Vancouver) at three time points (Fall 2012, 2013, 2014). We used a triple difference in differences analysis to assess whether there were increases in cycling over time amongst those living in closer proximity (< 500 m) to bicycle share docking stations in cities with newly implemented and existing PBSPs, relative to those in cities with no PBSPs.ResultsLiving in closer proximity to bicycle share predicted increases in cycling over time for those living in cities with newly implemented PBSPs at 2-year follow-up. No change was seen over time for those living in closer proximity to bicycle share in cities with existing PBSPs relative to those in cities with no PBSP.ConclusionThese findings indicate that PBSPs are associated with increases in population-level cycling for those who live near to a docking station in the second year of program implementation.

Who is in the near market for bicycle sharing? Identifying current, potential, and unlikely users of a public bicycle share program in Vancouver, Canada

BackgroundPublic bicycle share programs in many cities are used by a small segment of the population. To better understand the market for public bicycle share, this study examined the socio-demographic and transportation characteristics of current, potential, and unlikely users of a public bicycle share program and identified specific motivators and deterrents to public bicycle share use.MethodsWe used cross-sectional data from a 2017 Vancouver public bicycle share (Mobi by Shaw Go) member survey (n = 1272) and a 2017 population-based survey of Vancouver residents (n = 792). We categorized non-users from the population survey as either potential or unlikely users based on their stated interest in using public bicycle share within the next year. We used descriptive statistics to compare the demographic and transportation characteristics of current users to non-users, and multiple logistic regression to compare the profiles of potential and unlikely users.ResultsPublic bicycle share users in Vancouver tended to be male, employed, and have higher educations and incomes as compared to non-users, and were more likely to use active modes of transportation. The vast majority of non-users (74%) thought the public bicycle share program was a good idea for Vancouver. Of the non-users, 23% were identified as potential users. Potential users tended to be younger, have lower incomes, and were more likely to use public transit for their main mode of transportation, as compared to current and unlikely users. The most common motivators among potential users related to health benefits, not owning a bicycle, and stations near their home or destination. The deterrents among unlikely users were a preference for riding their own bicycle, perceived inconvenience compared to other modes, bad weather, and traffic. Cost was a deterrent to one-fifth of unlikely users, notable given they tended to have lower incomes than current users.ConclusionFindings can help inform targeted marketing and outreach to increase public bicycle share uptake in the population.

Biking to School: The Role of Bicycle-Sharing Programs in Adolescents.

The purpose of this study was to: (1) describe modes of transport to school, with a specific focus on the use of public bicycle share programs (PBSP); and (2) assess sociodemographic, psychosocial, and environmental correlates of bike and PBSP use to go to school. A group of 465 adolescents from the International Physical Activity and the Environment Network (IPEN) Adolescent Study (Valencia, Spain) participated in the research. Mixed regression analyses were conducted on the data obtained. Not having bicycle access, a PBSP card, or a public bike lane close to the school is negatively associated with bicycle use. PBSP is positively associated with physical self-efficacy and bicycle availability and negatively associated with the number of vehicles per drivers at home and not having PBSP stations close to the school. The strongest predictive factor, as regards cycling as an active mode of transport to school among adolescents is having a PBSP card. Schools have a crucial role in promoting bicycle use through collaboration when designing public policies that consider access to bike lane networks and PBSP stations and therefore should encourage local government implementation policies and/or increase PBSP stations within 250 m of the school.

Evaluation of the impact of a public bicycle share program on population bicycling in Vancouver, BC.

Public bicycle share programs have been implemented in cities around the world to encourage bicycling. However, there are limited evaluations of the impact of these programs on bicycling at the population level. This study examined the impact of a public bicycle share program on bicycling amongst residents of Vancouver, BC. Using an online panel, we surveyed a population-based sample of Vancouver residents three times: prior to the implementation of the public bicycle share program (T0, October 2015, n = 1111); in the early phase of implementation (T1, October 2016, n = 995); and one-year post implementation (T2, October 2017, n = 966). We used difference in differences estimation to assess whether there was an increase in bicycling amongst those living and/or working in close proximity (≤500 m) to Vancouver's Mobi by Shaw Go public bicycle share program, compared to those living and working outside this area. Results suggest that only living or only working inside the bicycle share service area was not associated with increases in bicycling at T1 or T2 relative to those outside the service area. Both living and working inside the bicycle share service area was associated with increases in bicycling at T1 (OR: 2.26, 95% CI: 1.07, 4.80), however not at T2 (OR: 1.37, 95% CI: 0.67, 2.83). These findings indicate that the implementation of a public bicycle share program may have a greater effect on bicycling for residents who both live and work within the service area, although this effect may not be sustained over time.

Who Are Public Bicycle Share Programs Serving? An Evaluation of the Equity of Spatial Access to Bicycle Share Service Areas in Canadian Cities

Public bicycle share users are predominantly Caucasian, employed, and have higher incomes and education levels, as compared to the general population. This has prompted bicycle share operators and researchers to increasingly consider equity in bicycle share program access and uptake. The location of bicycle share docking stations has been cited as a major barrier to uptake among lower socioeconomic groups. This study aimed to assess spatial access to bicycle share programs in Canadian cities by comparing the socioeconomic characteristics of dissemination areas inside and outside the bicycle share service areas. We obtained locations of bicycle share stations for the five existing programs in Canada: Vancouver, Hamilton, Toronto, Ottawa-Gatineau, and Montréal. We used the material component of the Pampalon Deprivation Index (2011) as a measure of socioeconomic status for each dissemination area, calculating city-specific quintiles. We compared the distribution of deprivation for dissemination areas inside the bicycle share service area, compared with outside the service area. We found that advantaged areas have better access to bicycle share infrastructure in Vancouver, Toronto, Ottawa-Gatineau, and Montréal, and conversely, that disadvantaged areas have better access in Hamilton. This analysis indicates that in most cities, substantial effort is needed to expand service areas to disadvantaged areas in order to increase spatial access for lower socioeconomic populations.

Knowing about a public bicycle share program in Montreal, Canada: Are diffusion of innovation and proximity enough for equitable awareness?

Abstract Researchers and practitioners are increasingly interested in public bicycle share programs (PBSP). Greater PBSP use promotes health benefits through increased physical activity yet financial costs and distant location of docking stations are barriers to PBSP uptake and reach of health promoting amenities is poorer among lesser educated individuals. However, lack of awareness of PBSP is the first barrier to overcome. This study examined 2-year changes in lack of awareness of a transport-related innovation implemented in Spring 2009 in Montreal, Canada, namely a PBSP called BIXI © as a function of proximity to bicycle docking stations and educational attainment As part of a larger investigation, a repeated cross-sectional design was used. A sample of 7011 adults was recruited through random-digit dialling to landline telephones in three population surveys: prior to implementation ( n =2000), after season 1 ( n =2502), and after season 2 ( n =2509). Multivariable logistic regression analyses examined associations of survey periods, proximity to docking stations, and education with lack of awareness while controlling for socio-demographic and health characteristics. At baseline, lower education and absence of docking stations within walking distance were associated with lower likelihood of awareness of the PBSP. There was a greater likelihood of being PBSP-unaware among those with lower education after season 1 implementation in comparison to those with higher education (OR=1.60, 95%CI: 1.18, 2.19). Those with lower education after season 2 implementation in neighbourhoods where PBSP was available were more likely to be PBSP-unaware in comparison to those with higher education in neighbourhoods without PBSP docking stations (OR=1.63, 95%CI: 1.01, 2.64). Although lack of awareness decreased over time, greater percentages of being PBSP-unaware were observed among those with lower education and living in neighbourhoods both with and without PBSP docking stations. Despite accessibility of the PBSP docking stations in neighbourhoods, inequalities in awareness persist.

Public bike sharing in New York City: helmet use behavior patterns at 25 Citi Bike™ stations.

Urban public bicycle sharing programs are on the rise in the United States. Launched in 2013, NYC's public bicycle share program, Citi Bike™ is the fastest growing program of its kind in the nation, with nearly 100,000 members and more than 330 docking stations across Manhattan and Brooklyn. The purpose of this study was to assess helmet use behavior among Citi Bike™ riders at 25 of the busiest docking stations. The 25 Citi Bike™ Stations varied greatly in terms of usage: total number of cyclists (N = 96-342), commute versus recreation (22.9-79.5% commute time riders), weekday versus weekend (6.0-49.0% weekend riders). Helmet use ranged between 2.9 and 29.2% across sites (median = 7.5 %). A total of 4,919 cyclists were observed, of whom 545 (11.1%) were wearing helmets. Incoming cyclists were more likely to wear helmets than outgoing cyclists (11.0 vs 5.9%, p = .000). NYC's bike share program endorses helmet use, but relies on education to encourage it. Our data confirm that, to date, this strategy has not been successful.

Evaluating the impact of environmental interventions across 2 countries: the International Bikeshare Impacts on Cycling and Collisions Study (IBICCS) Study protocol.

BackgroundFew international studies examine public bicycle share programs (PBSP) health impacts. We describe the protocol for the International Bikeshare Impacts on Cycling and Collisions Study (IBICCS).MethodsA quasi-experimental non-equivalent groups design was used. Intervention cities (Montreal, Toronto, Boston, New York and Vancouver) were matched to control cities (Chicago, Detroit, and Philadelphia) on total population, population density, cycling rates, and average yearly temperature. The study used three repeated, cross-sectional surveys in intervention and control cities in Fall 2012 (baseline), 2013 (year 1), and 2014 (year 2). A non-probabilistic online panel survey with a sampling frame of individuals residing in and around areas where PBSP are/would be implemented was used. A total of 12,000 respondents will be sampled. In each of the 8 cities 1000 respondents will be sampled with an additional 4000 respondents sampled based on the total population of the city. Survey questions include measures of self-rated health, and self-reported height and weight, knowledge and experience using PBSP, physical activity, bicycle helmet use and history of collisions and injuries while cycling, socio-demographic questions, and home/workplace locations. Respondents could complete questionnaires in English, French, and Spanish. Two weights will be applied to the data: inverse probability of selection and post-stratification on age and sex.A triple difference analysis will be used. This approach includes in the models, time, exposure, and treatment group, and interaction terms between these variables to estimate changes across time, between exposure groups and between cities.DiscussionThere are scientific and practical challenges in evaluating PBSP. Methodological challenges included: appropriate sample recruitment, exchangeability of treatment and control groups, controlling unmeasured confounding, and specifying exposure. Practical challenges arise in the evaluation of environmental interventions such as a PBSP: one of the companies involved filed for bankruptcy, a Hurricane devastated New York City, and one PBSP was not implemented. Overall, this protocol provides methodological and practical guidance for researchers wanting to study PBSP impacts on health.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-1103) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Association of implementation of a public bicycle share program with intention and self-efficacy: The moderating role of socioeconomic status.

This natural experiment examines the effect of a public bicycle share program on cognitions and investigates the moderating influence of socioeconomic status on this effect. Two cross-sectional population-based surveys were conducted. Intention and self-efficacy to use the public bicycle share program were assessed by questionnaire. A difference-in-differences approach was adopted using logistic regression analyses. A significant effect of the public bicycle share program was observed on intention (exposure × time; odds ratio = 3.41; 95% confidence interval: 1.50-7.73) and self-efficacy (exposure; odds ratio = 1.61; 95% confidence interval: 1.28-2.01). A positive effect on intention was observed among individuals with low income (exposure × time; odds ratio = 27.85; 95% confidence interval: 2.51-309.25). Implementing a public bicycle share program is associated with increases in intention and self-efficacy for public bicycle share use, although some social inequalities persist.

Public bicycle share programs and head injuries.

We evaluated the effect of North American public bicycle share programs (PBSPs), which typically do not offer helmets with rentals, on the occurrence of bicycle-related head injuries. We analyzed trauma center data for bicycle-related injuries from 5 cities with PBSPs and 5 comparison cities. We used logistic regression models to compare the odds that admission for a bicycle-related injury would involve a head injury 24 months before PBSP implementation and 12 months afterward. In PBSP cities, the proportion of head injuries among bicycle-related injuries increased from 42.3% before PBSP implementation to 50.1% after (P < .01). This proportion in comparison cities remained similar before (38.2%) and after (35.9%) implementation (P = .23). Odds ratios for head injury were 1.30 (95% confidence interval = 1.13, 1.67) in PBSP cities and 0.94 (95% confidence interval = 0.79, 1.11) in control cities (adjusted for age and city) when we compared the period after implementation to the period before. Results suggest that steps should be taken to make helmets available with PBSPs. Helmet availability should be incorporated into PBSP planning and funding, not considered an afterthought following implementation.

Implementing a Public Bicycle Share Program: Impact on Perceptions and Support for Public Policies for Active Transportation

Favorable public opinion and support for policies are essential to favor the sustainability of environmental interventions. This study examined public perceptions and support for active living policies associated with implementing a public bicycle share program (PBSP). Two cross-sectional population-based telephone surveys were conducted in 2009 and 2010 among 5011 adults in Montréal, Canada. Difference-in-differences analyses tested the impact of the PBSP on negative perceptions of the impact of the PBSP on the image of the city, road safety, ease of traveling, active transportation, health, and resistance to policies. People living closer to docking stations were less likely to have negative perceptions of the effect of the PBSP on the image of the city (OR = 0.5; 95% CI, 0.4-0.8) and to be resistant to policies (OR = 0.8; 95% CI, 0.6-1.0). The likelihood of perceiving negative effects on road safety increased across time (OR = 1.4; 95% CI, 1.2-1.8). Significant interactions were observed for perceptions of ease of traveling (OR = 0.5; 95% CI, 0.4-0.8), active transportation (OR = 0.6; 95% CI, 0.4-1.0), and health (OR = 0.6; 95% CI, 0.4-0.8): likelihood of negative perceptions decreased across time among people exposed. Findings indicate that negative perceptions were more likely to abate among those living closer to the PBSP.

Bicycling to university: evaluation of a bicycle-sharing program in Spain

This study examined the change in behavioral stages (e.g. contemplation, action and maintenance) of cycling to university before and after the implementation of a new public bicycle share program (PBSP) and promotion of its use. The study also determined the change in the prevalence, correlates of PBSP use and potential role in the promotion of healthy weight. An 8-month follow-up cross-sectional study (September 2010-April 2011) was carried out among undergraduate students during the first season of implementation of the PBSP in Valencia, Spain. The sample was 173 students (68.2% female) with a mean age of 21.3 years (SD 3.06) who attended a PBSP promotional session. The data were collected by questionnaire. Results indicated a significant increase of 14.6% in the action/maintenance stage of change and showed that 19% of the participants were PBSP users 8 months later. The behavioral stage did not change when students always had access to car/motorbike, lived further than 5 km from the university and had no bicycle stations within 250 m from home. Those most likely to start using PBSP were students who were in the contemplation stage, perceived fewer environmental and safety barriers to active commuting and had one or more stations within 250 m of home. PBSP users expended ∼257 metabolic equivalent·minutes/week bicycling to university, and there was a small reduction in BMI. Findings suggest that PBSPs can be considered as useful promoters of cycling behavior and may contribute to weight control in university students.

The impact of implementing a public bicycle share program on the likelihood of collisions and near misses in Montreal, Canada

ObjectiveThis study aimed to estimate the impact of implementing a public bicycle share program (PBSP) on the likelihood of self-reported collisions and near misses between cyclists and motor vehicles among cyclists living in Montreal. MethodsA repeated cross sectional design was used. Surveys were conducted at the launch of the PBSP, at the end of the first and second seasons of implementation. Logistic regression estimated changes in the likelihood of reporting collisions or near misses. ResultsThere was no evidence of a change in likelihood of reporting a collision or near miss after implementing the PBSP. PBSP users were not at a greater risk of reporting a collision (OR=1.53, 95% CI: 0.77–3.02) or near miss (OR=1.37, 95% CI: 0.94–1.98), although confidence intervals were wide. The number of days of cycling per week was associated with collisions (OR=1.27, 95% CI: 1.17–1.39) and near misses (OR=1.34, 95% CI: 1.26–1.42). ConclusionsThere was no evidence of a change in the likelihood of reporting collisions or near misses in Montreal between the implementation of the PBSP and the end of the second season. Time spent cycling was associated with reporting a collision or near miss.

Individual- and Area-Level Disparities in Access to the Road Network, Subway System and a Public Bicycle Share Program on the Island of Montreal, Canada

Few studies have examined potential disparities in access to transportation infrastructures, an important determinant of population health. To examine individual- and area-level disparities in access to the road network, public transportation system, and a public bicycle share program in Montreal, Canada. Examining associations between sociodemographic variables and access to the road network, public transportation system, and a public bicycle share program, 6,495 adult respondents (mean age, 48.7 years; 59.0 % female) nested in 33 areas were included in a multilevel analysis. Individuals with lower incomes lived significantly closer to public transportation and the bicycle share program. At the area level, the interaction between low-education and low-income neighborhoods showed that these areas were significantly closer to public transportation and the bicycle share program controlling for individual and urbanicity variables. More deprived areas of the Island of Montreal have better access to transportation infrastructure than less-deprived areas.

Impact Evaluation of a Public Bicycle Share Program on Cycling: A Case Example of BIXI in Montreal, Quebec

We examined associations between residential exposure to BIXI (BIcycle-taXI)-a public bicycle share program implemented in Montreal, Quebec, in 2009, which increases accessibility to cycling by making available 5050 bicycles at 405 bicycle docking stations-and likelihood of cycling (BIXI and non-BIXI) in Montreal over the first 2 years of implementation. Three population-based samples of adults participated in telephone surveys. Data collection occurred at the launch of the program (spring 2009), and at the end of the first (fall 2009) and second (fall 2010) seasons of implementation. Difference in differences models assessed whether greater cycling was observed for those exposed to BIXI compared with those not exposed at each time point. We observed a greater likelihood of cycling for those exposed to the public bicycle share program after the second season of implementation (odds ratio = 2.86; 95% confidence interval = 1.85, 4.42) after we controlled for weather, built environment, and individual variables. The implementation of a public bicycle share program can lead to greater likelihood of cycling among persons living in areas where bicycles are made available.

The potential modal shift and health benefits of implementing a public bicycle share program in Montreal, Canada

BackgroundThis study estimated the modal shift associated with the implementation of a public bicycle share program in Montreal, Canada.MethodsA population-based sample of adults participated in two cross sectional telephone surveys. Self-reported travel behaviors were collected at the end of the first (fall 2009) and second (fall 2010) season of implementation. The sample included 2502 (Mean age=47.8 years, 61.8% female), and 2509 (Mean age=48.9 years, 59.0% female) adult respondents in each survey.ResultsThe estimated modal shift associated with the implementation of the PBSP from motor vehicle use to walking, cycling, and public transportation was 6483 and 8023 trips in 2009 and 2010. This change represents 0.34% and 0.43% of all motor vehicle trips in Montreal.ConclusionsThe implementation of a PBSP was associated with a shift toward active transportation. The modal shift was complex and not simply the result of a discrete shift from one mode to another. Promotion of active transportation should encourage integration of multiple active transportation modes to better reflect people’s actual transportation behaviors.

Examining the spatial congruence between data obtained with a novel activity location questionnaire, continuous GPS tracking, and prompted recall surveys

BackgroundPlace and health researchers are increasingly interested in integrating individuals’ mobility and the experience they have with multiple settings in their studies. In practice, however, few tools exist which allow for rapid and accurate gathering of detailed information on the geographic location of places where people regularly undertake activities. We describe the development and validation of a new activity location questionnaire which can be useful in accounting for multiple environmental influences in large population health investigations.MethodsTo develop the questionnaire, we relied on a literature review of similar data collection tools and on results of a pilot study wherein we explored content validity, test-retest reliability, and face validity. To estimate convergent validity, we used data from a study of users of a public bicycle share program conducted in Montreal, Canada in 2011. We examined the spatial congruence between questionnaire data and data from three other sources: 1) one-week GPS tracks; 2) activity locations extracted from the GPS tracks; and 3) a prompted recall survey of locations visited during the day. Proximity and convex hull measures were used to compare questionnaire-derived data and GPS and prompted recall survey data.ResultsIn the sample, 75% of questionnaire-reported activity locations were located within 400 meters of an activity location recorded on the GPS track or through the prompted recall survey. Results from convex hull analyses suggested questionnaire activity locations were more concentrated in space than GPS or prompted-recall locations.ConclusionsThe new questionnaire has high convergent validity and can be used to accurately collect data on regular activity spaces in terms of locations regularly visited. The methods, measures, and findings presented provide new material to further study mobility in place and health research.