Pteropus Vampyrus Research Articles

Characterization of a mammalian orthoreovirus isolated from the large flying fox, Pteropus vampyrus, in Indonesia.

Fruit bats serve as an important reservoir for many zoonotic pathogens, including Nipah virus, Hendra virus, Marburg virus and Lyssavirus. To gain a deeper insight into the virological characteristics, pathogenicity and zoonotic potential of bat-borne viruses, recovery of infectious viruses from field samples is important. Here, we report the isolation and characterization of a mammalian orthoreovirus (MRV) from a large flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus) in Indonesia, which is the first detection of MRV in Southeast Asia. MRV was recovered from faecal samples of three different P. vampyrus in Central Java. Nucleotide sequence analysis revealed that the genome of the three MRV isolates shared more than 99% nucleotide sequence identity. We tentatively named one isolated strain as MRV12-52 for further analysis and characterization. Among 10 genome segments, MRV12-52 S1 and S4, which encode the cell-attachment protein and outer capsid protein, had 93.6 and 95.1% nucleotide sequence identities with known MRV strains, respectively. Meanwhile, the remaining genome segments of MRV12-52 were divergent with 72.9-80.7 % nucleotide sequence identities. Based on the nucleotide sequence of the S1 segment, MRV12-52 was grouped into serotype 2, and phylogenetic analysis demonstrated evidence of past reassortment events. In vitro characterization of MRV12-52 showed that the virus efficiently replicated in BHK-21, HEK293T and A549 cells. In addition, experimental infection of laboratory mice with MRV12-52 caused severe pneumonia with 75% mortality. This study highlights the presence of pathogenic MRV in Indonesia, which could serve as a potential animal and public health concern.

USE OF VISCOELASTIC COAGULATION TESTING IN MEGACHIROPTERA (PTEROPUS HYPOMELANUS AND PTEROPUS VAMPYRUS) REVEALS HIGH VARIABILITY IN CLOT KINETICS.

Megachiroptera is a mammalian suborder that includes old world fruit bats. Common clinical problems among captive Megachiroptera, such as liver disease (e.g., iron storage disease), kidney disease (e.g., protein-losing nephropathy), and heart disease (e.g., dilated cardiomyopathy), carry elevated risk for hemostatic derangements. The assessment of viscoelastic coagulation assays, however, has not yet been reported in bats. The main objective of the study was to describe viscoelastography data using the Viscoelastic Coagulation Monitor (VCM) Vet in captive large flying foxes (Pteropus vampyrus) (n = 20) and variable flying foxes (Pteropus hypomelanus) (n = 10). Additional objectives were to compare viscoelastic and clotting parameters (1) between healthy P. vampyrus and P. hypomelanus bats and (2) between untreated bats and those treated with meloxicam or aspirin, and (3) to examine relationships between activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) and potentially homologous viscoelastic parameters clotting time (CT) and clot formation time (CFT). The results showed marked variability among clinically normal bats. The intrinsic pathway, as measured by aPTT, had prolonged times compared with most terrestrial mammals, but similar times to birds, marine mammals, and sea turtles. A search of P. vampyrus genome found stop codons present in two exons of the factor XI gene; alterations in factor XI expression would be expected to alter intrinsic coagulation. Because of the high variability, no statistically significant findings were noted in the secondary objectives. Correlation between aPTT and CT or CFT was not strong (rs = 0.406 or 0.192, respectively). The results from this study suggest that clot kinetics vary widely among Megachiroptera when using the VCM Vet with untreated blood. A prolonged intrinsic coagulation pathway, as has been found in other megachiropteran species, and activation of the extrinsic coagulation pathway during venipuncture may be responsible for the inconsistent results.

Pteropus vampyrus TRIM40 Is an Interferon-Stimulated Gene That Antagonizes RIG-I-like Receptors.

Nipah virus (NiV; genus: Henipavirus; family: Paramyxoviridae) naturally infects Old World fruit bats (family Pteropodidae) without causing overt disease. Conversely, NiV infection in humans and other mammals can be lethal. Comparing bat antiviral responses with those of humans may illuminate the mechanisms that facilitate bats' tolerance. Tripartite motif proteins (TRIMs), a large family of E3-ubiquitin ligases, fine-tune innate antiviral immune responses, and two human TRIMs interact with Henipavirus proteins. We hypothesize that NiV infection induces the expression of an immunosuppressive TRIM in bat, but not human cells, to promote tolerance. Here, we show that TRIM40 is an interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) in pteropodid but not human cells. Knockdown of bat TRIM40 increases gene expression of IFNβ, ISGs, and pro-inflammatory cytokines following poly(I:C) transfection. In Pteropus vampyrus, but not human cells, NiV induces TRIM40 expression within 16 h after infection, and knockdown of TRIM40 correlates with reduced NiV titers as compared to control cells. Bats may have evolved to express TRIM40 in response to viral infections to control immunopathogenesis.

Understanding the Global Transmission and Demographic Distribution of Nipah Virus (NiV)

Nipah virus (NIV) infection was identified in 1998, in Malaysia. The virus belongs to the Paramyxoviridae family. In the past, the virus was spread in Bangladesh, India, as well as Singapore. It affects our nervous system and the respiratory system, which is highly dangerous for our lives. It is caused by an RNA virus and has a high mortality rate. This virus can be transmitted from bats to humans, pigs to humans, or humans to humans. It is conceptualized that fruit bats like Pteropus vampyrus and Pteropus hypomelanus are responsible for transmitting the virus. From 1999 to 2022, there is no approved vaccine and medicines for the treatment of nipah virus infection. The fatality rate of this nipah virus is 75% to 95%. Moreover, NiV B (Bangladesh) is more deathly than NiV M (Malaysia). In present, some vaccines are under trial on pigs, horses and the monkey. In this review we try to focus on the barrier of vaccine and medicine development for this nipah virus.

The tongue morphology of Pteropus vampyrus from Timor Island, Indonesia: New insights from scanning electron and light microscopic studies

Abstract. Selan YN, Wihadmadyatami H, Haryanto A, Kusindarta DL. 2023. The tongue morphology of Pteropus vampyrus from Timor Island, Indonesia: New insights from scanning electron and light microscopic studies. Biodiversitas 24: 3512-3518. The large flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus Linnaeus, 1758) is a Southeast Asian megabat species includes with frugivorous bats. The tongue plays a pivotal role in taking, chewing, and swallowing food. The structure of the bat tongue hampers considerable variation, mainly in the papilla. Variations occur owing to the feeding habits, environment, and adaptation of bats to their environments. The aim of this study was to clarify the morphological structure of the tongue of P. vampyrus obtained from the island of Timor, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, by using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Light Microscopy(LM). This study included six adult bats regardless of sex. Macroscopically, the tongue of P. vampyrus consists of three parts: the apex, corpus, and radix. SEM and LM confirmed that the apex presents filiform papillae of several subtypes, including scale-like filiform, giant trifid, and small crown-like papillae. In addition, the apex features fungiform and transitional papillae between the giant trifid and small crown-like papillae. Furthermore, the corpus consists of filiform papillae (leaf-like filiform and large crown-like papillae) and fungiform papillae. The radix consists of filiform papillae (long conical, leaf-like filiform, and short conical papillae), fungiform papillae, and three V-shaped circumvallate papillae pointing to the larynx.

EKSPLORASI POTENSI FAUNA DI KAWASAN SUNGAI CIPUNAGARA KABUPATEN SUBANG SEBAGAI REKOMENDASI PENGEMBANGAN KAWASAN KONSERVASI

The variety of fauna is one of the certain natural wealth of Indonesia. Yet human characterisic to destroy forest has inflicted a loss. Therefore the fauna in its real habitat needs more attention so it may become a media in conserving the fauna and the habitat in order to save it for the future generation. The object of research is help to preserve the existing fauna and conservation area. The method of research by transect path and interviewing people around Wildlife Reserve of Cipunagar River, the observation on the location was done by following direction and position of transect diameter slowly and at the same time making note of any fauna species found. The result of the research that was done in wildlife resrve of Cipunagara River showed that there were 12 species of 8 families, are Panthera tigris sondaicus, Panthera pardus melas, Nisaetus bartelsi, Pteropus vampyrus, Trachypithecus auratus, Presbytis comate, Hystrix javanica, Sus verrucosus, Macaca fascicularis, Gallus gallus, and Colluricincla sp. The recommendation of fauna potential and conservation area is Taman Hutan Raya.

Cuff size, cuff placement, blood pressure state, and monitoring technique can influence indirect arterial blood pressure monitoring in anesthetized bats (Pteropus vampyrus)

Evaluate agreement between 2 non-invasive blood pressure (NIBP) techniques and invasive arterial blood pressure (IBP) in anesthetized bats using various cuff sizes and cuff positioning while also evaluating its performance during hypertension and hypotension. 8 bats (1.1 ± 0.2 kg). Bats were anesthetized with isoflurane in oxygen. NIBP was measured using oscillometric (NIBP-O) and Doppler (NIBP-D) techniques in the pectoral limb (PEC) and pelvic limbs (PEL) using 3 cuff sizes (1, 2, and 3). NIBP measurements were compared with IBP; systolic (SAPinvasive), mean (MAPinvasive), and diastolic arterial blood pressure (DAPinvasive) during normotension, hypertension, and hypotension. Hypotension was induced with isoflurane (3.8 ± 1.2%) and hypertension with norepinephrine (3 ± 0.5 µg/kg/min). Data analysis included Bland-Altman analyses and 3-way ANOVA. Results were reported as mean bias (95% CI). NIBP-O monitor reported 29% errors, and experienced more failures with hypertension, cuff placement on PEC, and using a size 1 cuff. Across states, an agreement between NIBP-D and MAPinvasive with cuff 2 on PEL (-3 mmHg [-8, 1]), and NIBP-D and SAPinvasive with cuff 3 on PEC (2 mmHg [-5, 9 mmHg]) was achieved. NIBP-D over-estimated SAPinvasive and MAPinvasive during hypertension in both limbs with cuffs 1 and 2. Except during hypotension, NIBP-O underestimated MAPinvasive and DAPinvasive using a size 2 cuff on PEL. In anesthetized bats, NIBP-O is unreliable for estimating IBP. NIBP-D shows acceptable agreement with MAPinvasive with cuff size 2 on PEL, and with SAPinvasive with cuff size 3 on PEC across a wide range of IBP values.

Comparison of microsatellite distribution in the genomes of Pteropus vampyrus and Miniopterus natalensis (Chiroptera)

BackgroundMicrosatellites are a ubiquitous occurrence in prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes. Microsatellites have become one of the most popular classes of genetic markers due to their high reproducibility, multi-allelic nature, co-dominant mode of inheritance, abundance and wide genome coverage. We characterised microsatellites in the genomes and genes of two bat species, Pteropus vampyrus and Miniopterus natalensis. This characterisation was used for gene ontology analysis and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment of coding sequences (CDS).ResultsCompared to M. natalensis, the genome size of P. vampyrus is larger and contains more microsatellites, but the total diversity of both species is similar. Mononucleotide and dinucleotide repeats were the most diverse in the genome of the two species. In each bat species, the microsatellite bias was obvious. The microsatellites with the largest number of repeat motifs in P. vampyrus from mononucleotide to hexanucleotide were (A)n, (AC)n, (CAA)n, (AAAC)n, (AACAA)n and (AAACAA)n, with frequencies of 97.94%, 58.75%, 30.53%, 22.82%, 54.68% and 22.87%, respectively, while in M. natalensis were (A)n, (AC)n, (TAT)n, (TTTA)n, (AACAA)n and (GAGAGG)n, with of 92.00%, 34.08%, 40.36%, 21.83%, 25.42% and 12.79%, respectively. In both species, the diversity of microsatellites was highest in intergenic regions, followed by intronic, untranslated and exonic regions and lowest in coding regions. Location analysis indicated that microsatellites were mainly concentrated at both ends of the genes. Microsatellites in the CDS are thus subject to higher selective pressure. In the GO analysis, two unique GO terms were found only in P. vampyrus and M. natalensis, respectively. In KEGG enriched pathway, the biosynthesis of other secondary metabolites and metabolism of other amino acids in metabolism pathways were present only in M. natalensis. The combined biological process, cellular components and molecular function ontology are reflected in the GO analysis and six functional enrichments in KEGG annotation, suggesting advantageous mutations during species evolution.ConclusionsOur study gives a comparative characterization of the genomes of microsatellites composition in the two bat species. And also allow further study on the effect of microsatellites on gene function as well as provide an insight into the molecular basis for species adaptation to new and changing environments.

Outcomes from an anti-gonadotropin-releasing hormone immunotherapeutic trial in large flying foxes (Pteropus vampyrus)

The anti-GnRH immunotherapeutic product Improvest was administered to intact male large flying foxes (Pteropus vampyrus) under managed care for androgen mitigation, leading to a decrease in agonistic behaviors, falls, and injuries from conspecific attention. 12 males were included in this study. Eleven bats received subcutaneous (SC) Improvest interscapular, and 1 animal received Improvest SC in its leg. Assessments included clinical presentation, treatment, behavior, and urine and fecal glucocorticoid metabolites and testosterone (T5) concentrations. Eleven of the 12 bats developed reactions, which included facial edema, localized irritation, swelling of the head and neck, and pruritus with varying degrees of skin ulceration and subsequent necrosis. Three of the animals required extensive treatments, and the 1 animal who received the injection in its leg was unaffected. Posttreatment, fecal glucocorticoid metabolite and/or T5 values were at or below the nonbreeding season baseline for 3 successive breeding seasons, and there was a reduction in agonistic interactions, falls, and injuries. A behavioral characteristic of this species is to focus on areas of irritation that exacerbated the extent of the skin wounds. Some cases required medical, surgical, and behavioral intervention. Large flying foxes may be particularly sensitive to this immunotherapeutic when given subcutaneously in the interscapular region. Despite this reaction, the positive long-term effects on behavior and multiyear reduction of hormones suggest that the use of this immunotherapeutic warrants further investigation, although the results should be taken into consideration with other factors such as handling, treatments, chronicity of lesions.

Musculoskeletal structure of the shoulder and arm in large flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus)

Abstract. Cahyadi DD, Nurhidayat, Nisa’ C, Supratikno, Novelina S, Setijanto H, Agungpriyono S. 2022. Musculoskeletal structure of the shoulder and arm in large flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus). Biodiversitas 23: 5902-5913. The flight activity of bats is the most energy-consuming activity compared to other locomotion activities. The anatomical characteristic of its musculoskeletal system is believed to play important role in their flight ability. The present study aimed to describe the musculoskeletal morphology of the shoulder, arms, and wing of the large flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus). In this study, the parameters used are observing the specific body parts of the shoulder and arm skeletons and muscles, comparing skeletons and muscles of the other species of bats and related literature. The arm and wing skeleton of the large flying fox were relatively simple, lengthened, and flexible at the distal end of the distal most phalanx, demonstrating the flexibility of a flying fox’s arm and wing during flight. The muscles involved in flying movement that moved the wings, either in adduction or in abduction. The muscles that play a role in the wing adduction phase of the large flying fox are musculi (mm.) pectorales, musculus (m.) serratus ventralis thoracis, m. clavodeltoideus, and m. biceps brachii caput coracoideus. Conversely, the wing abduction phase is played by several main muscles, such as m. clavotrapezius, m. acromiotrapezius, m. latissimus dorsi, m. teres major, m. acromiodeltoideus, m. spinodeltoideus, m. triceps brachii caput laterale, and m. triceps brachii caput longum. Briefly, the musculoskeletal characteristics of the shoulder and arms of the large flying fox are suggested as morphological adaptation to allow free shoulder area movement, reduce the body mass, and resist the large torsional stress in the wing.

Co-circulation of alpha- and beta-coronaviruses in Pteropus vampyrus flying foxes from Indonesia.

Bats are important reservoirs for alpha- and beta-coronaviruses. Coronaviruses (CoV) have been detected in pteropodid bats from several Southeast Asian countries, but little is known about coronaviruses in the Indonesian archipelago in proportion to its mammalian biodiversity. In this study, we screened pooled faecal samples from the Indonesian colonies of Pteropus vampyrus with unbiased next-generation sequencing. Bat CoVs related to Rousettus leschenaultii CoV HKU9 and Eidolon helvum CoV were detected. The 121 faecal samples were further screened using a conventional hemi-nested pan-coronavirus PCR assay. Three positive samples were successfully sequenced, and phylogenetic reconstruction revealed the presence of alpha- and beta-coronaviruses. CoVs belonging to the subgenera Nobecovirus, Decacovirus and Pedacovirus were detected in a single P. vampyrus roost. This study expands current knowledge of coronavirus diversity in Indonesian flying foxes, highlighting the need for longitudinal surveillance of colonies as continuing urbanization and deforestation heighten the risk of spillover events.

The Distribution and Community's Perception of Flying Fox, Pteropus vampyrus in Limbang, a Transboundary Area in Sarawak.

Flying foxes are threatened throughout their geographic range, and there are large gaps in the understanding of their landscape-scale habitat use. This study identified potential habitats in Limbang, Sarawak and informed potential distribution based on dispersal and interview surveys. Here, biological surveys were combined with interviews of local communities in Limbang Mangrove National Park (LMNP), Sarawak to illustrate distribution and the communities' perception on the protected flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus). Mangrove forest areas were surveyed for for the presence of flying foxes and villagers were interviewed regarding the use by flying foxes of agricultural areas and instances of conflict. Boat and questionnaire surveys were conducted for nine days from 18 to 27 February 2021. The surveys did not record any flying fox roosting sites within the national park and was instead observed to fly from Menunggul Island, Brunei into the national park in the evenings and back to Brunei in the mornings. A total of 27 flying foxes were recorded during the boat survey. Flying foxes were detected from 8/154 survey points and their spatial distribution appeared to be concentrated along Sungai Limpaku Pinang. Most respondents were aware of the species while some have directly observed them in fruit orchards, mangroves, rivers and mixed dipterocarp forests. Eleven perception-based questions were presented, and results showed that locality and income were the most influential parameters exhibiting conservation awareness through Boosted Regression Trees (BRT) analysis. Most respondents believe that flying foxes can uplift the local economy through ecotourism opportunities. However, these findings need to be carefully interpreted as the species has a large home range. Hence, long-term monitoring should be established to generate a larger dataset for stronger analysis to better represent the distribution and occurrence of this species in LMNP.

Local hunting practices and perceptions regarding the distribution and ecological role of the Large Flying Fox (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae: Pteropus vampyrus) in western Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo

Pteropodids such as flying foxes are declining rapidly across their range due to human activities, despite their benefit to humans through ecosystem services. The Large Flying Fox Pteropus vampyrus had a wide distribution across Borneo, but is now severely reduced in numbers, and rarely sighted. In order to develop effective conservation and management prescriptions for this species, updated information on its distribution, movement patterns, and the impact of anthropogenic pressure on its survival is crucial. As such, a questionnaire survey was conducted in western Sarawak to determine the occurrence of this species, and the conservation awareness for the species amongst local communities. The survey was conducted at nine sites during November 2018 – March 2019, involving a total of 123 respondents, including hunters (20%) and consumers (35%) of P. vampyrus. Respondents reported that P. vampyrus appears sporadically around the western tip of Borneo, and around the interior parts of western Sarawak, with more than half (51%) of the reported sightings in the interior occurring at fruit orchards during the fruiting and flowering seasons. Despite hunting and consuming this species, over 60% of the respondents felt that P. vampyrus could become an eco-tourism product in their area. Although many respondents viewed flying foxes as pests (47%) or food (52%), there was remarkably high awareness of the ecological roles and conservation needs of this species (76%), suggesting potentially strong support for flying fox conservation at the local level. Challenges associated with the enforcement of wildlife law in the remote parts of Sarawak need to be addressed, alongside strategic education and awareness efforts, which are all vital to achieve successful conservation and protection of this ecologically important species.

THE USE OF INTRADERMAL ALLERGY TESTING FOR ALLERGIC DERMATITIS IN PTEROPID BATS AND TREATMENT WITH ALLERGEN SPECIFIC IMMUNOTHERAPY: A CASE SERIES.

This case series describes the diagnosis of allergic dermatitis and management with allergen-specific immunotherapy (ASIT) based on intradermal allergy testing (IDAT) and adjunctive medical therapy in six pteropid bats; five large flying foxes (Pteropus vampyrus); and one variable flying fox (Pteropus hypomelanus). The cases ranged from 2 to 15 yr of age at the time of presentation. Clinical signs varied between individuals and included moist ulcerative cutaneous lesions in nonhaired skin, blepharoconjunctivitis, alopecia, and pruritus. All bats underwent IDAT under general anesthesia, and reactive allergens included a mixture of grasses, trees, weeds, and biting insects. Three of the six cases (50%) had reformulation of the ASIT before control of clinical signs was seen, and two bats were treated with the addition of oclacitinib (Apoquel). Severe adverse effects were not identified; however, one bat had self-limiting swelling at the immunotherapy injection site. All six cases showed improvement of clinical signs and perceived comfort level, including in subsequent allergy seasons.

Understanding human-flying fox interactions in the Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary as basis for conservation policy interventions

There is no documented flying fox hunting study done in the Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary (AMWS) which is known to harbor many threatened wildlife species. The Large Flying Fox Pteropus vampyrus is known to be threatened by hunting in the AMWS despite existing laws, such as the Wildlife Act. We conducted semi-structured interviews from September 2017 to January 2018 with 240 hunters in 10 villages through purposive sampling to determine the socio-demographic and economic profile of the hunters, their conservation awareness, perceptions on the monitoring scheme and enforcement, possible hunting patterns, and hunting drivers. Results showed that farming and fishing are the most common livelihoods of hunters. Most hunters achieved an education at the elementary level (42.9%), and belong to a household with 4–6 members (55.5%), often with only one member having a meager daily income (80.7%). Annual flooding was the main economic constraint to the hunters. Largely comprised of indigenous Manobos (62.9%), the majority of hunters did not believe in avoiding taboo species (85.4%). Most of the hunters were unaware of laws protecting Wildlife (62.9%) and unable to differentiate between threatened and non-threatened species (86.3%). Poor implementation of the monitoring scheme and insufficient enforcement were also observed in AMWS. Kites with hooks (55%) and guns (31.7%) were used to hunt P. vampyrus mostly for local consumption (83.3%). Multivariate analysis revealed that daily income and engagement in conservation negatively affected hunting intensity. With many constraints in totally banning hunting in poor and wildlife-dependent indigenous communities in AMWS, flexible policies must be considered. It is more reasonable and realistic to consider science-based hunting quotas in policy interventions to balance conservation and human welfare. Positive behavioral change towards sustainable hunting and trading bans requires a combination of effective education campaigns, engagement of indigenous communities in conservation, improved enforcement, and sustainable livelihood programs.

Detection of Tioman Virus in Pteropus vampyrus Near Flores, Indonesia

Diverse paramyxoviruses have coevolved with their bat hosts, including fruit bats such as flying foxes (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae). Several of these viruses are zoonotic, but the diversity and distribution of Paramyxoviridae are poorly understood. We screened pooled feces samples from three Pteropus vampyrus colonies and assayed tissues, rectal swabs, and oral swabs from 95 individuals of 23 pteropodid species sampled at 17 sites across the Indonesian archipelago with a conventional paramyxovirus PCR; all tested negative. Samples from 43 individuals were screened with next generation sequencing (NGS), and a single Pteropus vampyrus collected near Flores had Tioman virus sequencing reads. Tioman virus is a bat-borne virus in the genus Pararubulavirus with prior evidence of spillover to humans. This work expands the known range of Tioman virus, and it is likely that this isolated colony likely has sustained intergenerational transmission over a long period.

Viral-derived DNA invasion and individual variation in an Indonesian population of large flying fox Pteropus vampyrus.

Here, we performed next-generation sequencing (NGS) on six large flying foxes (Pteropus vampyrus) collected in Indonesia. Seventy-five virus species in the liver tissue of each specimen were listed. Viral homologous sequences in the bat genome were identified from the listed viruses. This finding provides collateral evidence of viral endogenization into the host genome. We found that two of the six specimens bore partial sequences that were homologous to the plant pathogens Geminiviridae and Luteoviridae. These sequences were absent in the P. vampyrus chromosomal sequences. Hence, plant viral homologous sequences were localized to the hepatocytes as extrachromosomal DNA fragments. Therefore, this suggests that the bat is a potential carrier or vector of plant viruses. The present investigation on wild animals offered novel perspectives on viral invasion, variation, and host interaction.

Fruit Bat Assemblage in Different Lowland Forest Types in the Northern Sierra Madre Mountains, Philippines

Prior studies of species assemblages of fruit bats in the Philippines have focused on primary and disturbed habitats as the point of comparison. No studies to date have been conducted on assemblages of fruit bats within primary lowland forest vegetation types. This study aimed to determine the fruit bat assemblage in dipterocarp, mangrove and lowland ultramafic forest and their association with these vegetation types. We hypothesize that difference in the diversity and abundance of fruit-producing plants in these habitat types would influence the abundance and diversity of bats. The study was conducted in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, Philippines from April to October 2017. Eleven species of fruit bats were captured during the study, in order of decreasing abundance: Rousettus amplexicaudatus, Ptenochirus jagori, Cynopterus brachyotis, Macroglossus minimus, Haplonycteris fischeri, Eonycteris robusta, Desmalopex leucopterus, Eonycteris spelaea, Pteropus vampyrus, Acerodon jubatus and Pteropus hypomelanus. Species richness was highest in dipterocarp forest (11 species), and lowest in the mangrove area (seven species), but species diversity was highest in the lowland ultramafic forest. The study suggests that species diversity and abundance of fruit bats in the different lowland vegetation habitats can be linked to their diet and morphology. Frugivores were strongly associated with dipterocarp forest and lowland ultramafic forest where fruit-producing plant diversity is high. Haplonycteris fischeri, C. brachyotis and P. jagori were more abundant in the dipterocarp than in the ultramafic forest. The abundance of nectarivores varied between vegetation types. Macroglossus minimus was more abundant in the mangrove while E. robusta and R. amplexicaudatus were more abundant in the dipterocarp and ultramafic forest. The difference in plant species composition and abundance may explain the variation in frugivore and nectarivore abundance between vegetation types. No pattern could be discerned for the large flying foxes (A. jubatus, P. hypomelanus, and P. vampyrus) because of few captures in each habitat, except for D. leucopterus, which was frequently captured in lowland ultramafic forest. The low captures of flying foxes may be attributed to the difficulty of capturing high-flying bats. Further research on foraging behavior, fruit selection by bats and the role of forest structure in determining the abundance and distribution of fruit bats is needed.

Morphology and ectoparasite spectrum of Pteropus vampyrus (the flying fox) in different parts of Malakand Division, Pakistan.

Three districts viz. Lower Dir, Swat and Shangla in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, were surveyed for the collection of Pteropus vampyrus (the Indian flying fox) in Malakand division, the north western region of Pakistan from February to November 2018. A total of 35 specimens were captured. Out of the examined specimens 22 were found to be infected with ectoparasites. Three types of ectoparasites were observed including flies 20% (n=7/35), mites 28.5% (n=10/35) and bugs 14.2% (n=5/35). Male bats were more infected 57.1% (n=20/35) as compared to females 42.8% (n=15/35), however, no significant difference (p>0.05) was noted. Flies were recovered from wings membrane and head region, mites were found on wings, ears and around eyes while bugs were found attached on body surface and neck region. Body weight, circumference and wing span of male bats were greater as compared to female bats and were considered a key factor in clear cut identification of male and female Pteropus vampyrus (the Indian flyingfox). It was concluded that Pteropus vampyrus from north western part of Pakistan were parasitized by a varied parasite fauna with high infestation rates. We assume that in male bats the number of parasites is generally higher than in females. Our results revealed new insights into parasite fauna of Pteropus vampyrus.

Anatomical Structure of Large Flying-Fox Bat’s (Pteropus vampyrus) Forelimb Skeleton

Large Flying-fox (Pteropus vampyrus) is a fruit-eating bat that belongs to the Chiroptera order. Anatomical variations in various animals affected by different feed and behavior. The Large Flying-fox Bat is a flying mammal that undergoes morphological adaptation regarding its environment and behavior. The forelimb of bat adapt to flying properties. The aim of this research is to determine the anatomical structure of Pteropus vampyrus forelimb. To find out the anatomical structure, Pteropus vampyrus skinned with a knife and sandpaper until it appears the parts of muscles and bones. This species has forearm length of 145-220 mm and has a very high flying habit.