Pterois Volitans Research Articles

Lionfish (Pterois volitans) do not show directional preferences for ambient underwater soundscapes during diurnal hours

Sound is a valuable cue in the marine environment that can inform animals about habitat location and community composition. Indeed, sound is often used for orientation and navigation by larval reef fishes during settlement. However, despite sound’s role in the early life of reef fishes, whether post-settlement reef fishes use ambient soundscapes to inform their movement decisions remains less clear. In an in-situ playback experiment in Curaçao, the Dutch Caribbean, settled individuals of an invasive predator, the Indo-Pacific lionfish (Pterois volitans), showed no preference to move towards the playbacks of two different habitat types during daylight hours. In particular, lionfish did not prefer to move towards the sounds of sandy or reef habitat playbacks when tested against a silent control. Moreover, when given a choice between simultaneous sandy and reef habitat playbacks, lionfish showed no preference for the soundscape of either habitat type. While the activity of lionfish was strongly correlated with their body size, with larger fish being more active, activity was not affected by habitat playback, nor did body size affect their preference for the soundscapes of either habitat type. While acoustic lures have been speculated to be a promising addition to existing lionfish trap designs, daytime playbacks of ambient soundscapes are unlikely to be successful in attracting lionfish post-settlement, ultimately affecting their efficacy.

Functional response metrics explain and predict high but differing ecological impacts of juvenile and adult lionfish.

Recent accumulation of evidence across taxa indicates that the ecological impacts of invasive alien species are predictable from their functional response (FR; e.g. the maximum feeding rate) and functional response ratio (FRR; the FR attack rate divided by handling time). Here, we experimentally derive these metrics to predict the ecological impacts of both juvenile and adult lionfish (Pterois volitans), one of the world's most damaging invaders, across representative and likely future prey types. Potentially prey-population destabilizing Type II FRs were exhibited by both life stages of lionfish towards four prey species: Artemia salina, Gammarus oceanicus, Palaemonetes varians and Nephrops norvegicus. FR magnitudes revealed ontogenetic shifts in lionfish impacts where juvenile lionfish displayed similar if not higher consumption rates than adult lionfish towards prey, apart from N. norvegicus, where adult consumption rate was considerably higher. Additionally, lionfish FRR values were very substantially higher than mean FRR values across known damaging invasive taxa. Thus, both life stages of lionfish are predicted to contribute to differing but high ecological impacts across prey communities, including commercially important species. With lionfish invasion ranges currently expanding across multiple regions globally, efforts to reduce lionfish numbers and population size structure, with provision of prey refugia through habitat complexity, might curtail their impacts. Nevertheless, the present study indicates that management programmes to support early detection and complete eradication of lionfish individuals when discovered in new regions are advised.

The lionfishes: Comparative development of Pterois volitans, Dendrochirus barberi, and D. hemprichi (Scorpaeniformes: Scorpaenidae: Pteroinae) and discrimination of their early life stages from non-pteroine scorpaenid genera in the Western North Atlantic

Despite the threat that lionfishes pose to non-native marine ecosystems worldwide, their early life stages (ELS) remain difficult to distinguish from morphologically similar taxa due to inadequate descriptions and poorly defined taxonomic characters. Two members of the Indo-Pacific marine assemblage commonly known as lionfishes, zebrafishes, firefishes, turkeyfishes, and butterfly-cods (Scorpaeniformes: Scorpaenidae: Pteroinae) are invasive in the Western North Atlantic (WNA). Here, we describe the ELS of Pterois volitans, Dendrochirus barberi, and two transforming larvae and an early juvenile of D. hemprichi; review the early development of D. zebra and a larva described as D. bellus; identify characteristics that distinguish P. volitans from the four members of Dendrochirus; and compile meristic and distribution data for all currently valid species of lionfishes worldwide based on recent revisions and updated nomenclature. We also briefly describe a small juvenile of two poorly known non-pteroine deep-water scorpaenids, and discuss characteristics that distinguish the five pteroines from non-pteroine scorpaenid genera in the WNA. Differences in relative length and elevation of the parietal and nuchal spines, and in pigmentation patterns distinguish P. volitans from the four members of Dendrochirus. Pterois volitans has parietal spines two or more times longer than the nuchals with both sets of spines oriented about 30° above the longitudinal axis of the head, whereas the four members of Dendrochirus have relatively short parietal and nuchal spines subequal in length that lay flatter against the cranium (i.e., elevation ≤15° above longitudinal axis of head). Transforming larvae of the four members of Dendrochirus also develop saddles of pigment along the dorsal and ventral margins of the body that P. volitans lacks at the sizes examined. One or more of the following suite of traits distinguish larvae of the five pteroines from those of non-pteroine scorpaenids and other morphologically similar taxa: the presence or absence of a “shield” of pigment over the dorsolateral margin of the visceral mass (may be reduced or augmented with scattered blotches of pigment in larger larvae of some taxa); the relative length, elevation, and placement of the parietal and nuchal spines; the presence or absence of a small slit behind the fourth gill arch; differences in pectoral-fin length, shape, and extent of pigmentation; the relative size, length, and placement of spines along the posterior shelf of the preopercle (PPO); and the presence or absence, number, and placement of spine(s) along the opercle.

Preservation by ionic gelation encapsulation of the antioxidant activity of protein hydrolysate derived from Lionfish (Pterois volitans, L.) muscle proteins.

The ionic gelation for preserving the antioxidant activity of the protein hydrolysate from encapsulated lionfish (Pterois volitans, L.) muscle was evaluated. A 22 factorial design was used. The factors evaluated were sodium alginate concentration (1.75% and 3.5% w/v) and calcium chloride concentration (3% and 5% w/v). The response variables were encapsulation efficiency and preservation of antioxidant activity. The beads obtained were classified as microcapsules (2-3mm) and were mostly spherical, with a weight ranging from 12 to 38mg. Encapsulation efficiency ranged from 37 to 55.47%, while the preservation of antioxidant activity ranged from 43.3 to 64.5%. The best treatment for preserving the in vitro antioxidant activity of the protein hydrolysate was the one with 1.75% w/v sodium alginate and 3% w/v calcium chloride, which showed an encapsulation efficiency of 53.96%, preservation of antioxidant activity of 64.5%, and free radical scavenging (DPPH) of 22.73%.

Antioxidant and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitory activities of red lionfish (Pterois volitans L.) muscle protein hydrolysates obtained using pepsin-pancreatin system

Despite being an invasive species and representing a threat in the area, red lionfish (Pterois volitans L.) meat is valued for its pleasant taste and high protein content. The objective of the present work was to evaluate the angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition (ACE-I) and the antioxidant activities of red lionfish muscle protein hydrolysates in vitro. Hydrolysates were obtained using the pepsin-pancreatin system, and their degree of hydrolysis (DH), electrophoretic, and amino acid profile were determined. Subsequently, their ACE-I and ABTS+ radical scavenging activity were evaluated, selecting those with the highest response. The highest DH (66.1%) was found in the hydrolysate obtained at 120 min of reaction time (H120); electrophoresis revealed the action of the enzymes on the muscle proteins. The highest bioactivities occurred during hydrolysis with pepsin for 60 min (H60), obtaining the highest ACE-I of 68.8% (evaluated with 500 µg protein) with a DH of 16.8%, ACE-I related amino acid content of 33.6%, and hydrophobic amino acid content of 42.9%. With the 30 min hydrolysates (H30), the highest Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity of 60.3 mM/mg protein was obtained with 18.4% DH and 22.1% radical scavenger amino acids; its comparison with H120 proved that higher DH did not produce a greater response in ABTS+ radical scavenging activity, DPPH, reducing power, and copper chelation assays; with β-carotene bleaching being the exception. Therefore, it can be concluded that red lionfish muscle hydrolysates could be a promising source of peptides with antihypertensive and antioxidant properties, and can be suitable as functional ingredients.

Limited effects of culling on the behavior of invasive lionfish (Pterois miles) in the Mediterranean.

Invasive species pose serious threats to ecosystems. To reduce ecological and economic consequences of invasions, efforts are made to control invaders and evaluating the effects of such efforts is paramount. Lionfishes (Pterois volitans and Pterois miles) are native to the Indo-Pacific Ocean and pose a major threat to local ecosystems in the invaded Atlantic and Mediterranean. Culling via spearfishing is a widespread measure to limit lionfish population size in invaded ranges. However, like most hunted fishes, lionfish alter their behavior after repeated culling, potentially decreasing the effectiveness of future culls. Previous studies on lionfish in the Caribbean have shown that lionfish are less bold after repeated culling. However, the impact of culling on lionfish in their newest invasive range, the Mediterranean, remains enigmatic. To determine the behavioral changes in response to culling in this second area of invasion, we tested for effects of culling on the behavior of lionfish in Cyprus, a region heavily impacted by the lionfish invasion in the Mediterranean. We compared the response of lionfish to an approaching free diver holding a metal pole (imitating a spear fisher) between protected areas where spearfishing is restricted and areas where culls are frequently conducted. We also assessed whether activity, hiding pattern, and site fidelity differed between these culled and unculled sites. Overall, we found limited effects of culling on the traits measured, indicating surprising resistance to culling-induced behavioral changes in Mediterranean lionfish. Future studies should monitor invasive lionfish population densities and the effects of culling in more detail to tailor management plans and reduce the negative effects of these fish in specific invaded ranges.

New Annotated Records of Helminth Parasites with Light Microscopy IV Acanthocephala (Palaeacanthocephala)

We give an account of 6 species of acanthocephalans in one class Palaeacanthocephala and 3 families collected from hosts in different geographical locations in Canada, Ukraine, Italy, the Philippines, and the USA. Each species account is annotated and morphologically presented using light microscopy showing characteristic diagnostic features. None of these accounts has been completely previously published. Almost all geographical records and many host associations are new. In the family Echinorhynchidae, we include Echinorhynchus lateralis Leidy, 1851 from Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill), Canada. We added new descriptive information, especially of the cement glands, and compared its morphometrics with those of other collections by other observers. We also described two discrete sizes of specimens of Echinorhynchus salmonis Müller, 1784 from Coregonus artedii Lesueur in Lake Superior. In Paracanthocephalidae, we describe 3 species including Acanthocephalus lucii (Müller, 1776) Lühe, 1911 from the common European perch Perca fluviatilis Linn. in an unusual location in Ukraine at the Ubort River. We provide light microscopy documentation of that species for the first time. Acanthocephalus rhinensis Amin, Thielen, Mïnderie, Taraschewski, Sures, 2008 from Anguilla anguilla (Linn.) in Italy is described and compared with specimens that were described from Germany with corrections re the Italian notions of its color band at the anterior trunk. Acanthocephalus tahlequahensis Oetinger and Buckner, 1976 from Etheostoma punctulatum (Agassiz) in Oklahoma is documented with new morphological features for the first time and documented its distribution outside of Oklahoma. In Rhadinorhynchidae, we report Serrasentis sagittifer (Linton, 1889) Van Cleave, 1923 from Pterois volitans (Linn.). We describe these species in the context of comparative morphometrics with the original and other descriptions noted elsewhere when available.

Reproductive Traits of Red Lionfish, Pterois volitans, at Two Sites Off the Northern Coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico

Reproductive Traits of Red Lionfish, Pterois volitans, at Two Sites Off the Northern Coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico

Diving into dual functionality: Swim bladder muscles in lionfish for buoyancy and sonic capabilities.

Although the primary function of the swim bladder is buoyancy, it is also involved in hearing, and it can be associated with sonic muscles for voluntary sound production. The use of the swim bladder and associated muscles in sound production could be an exaptation since this is not its first function. We however lack models showing that the same muscles can be used in both movement and sound production. In this study, we investigate the functions of the muscles associated with the swim bladder in different Pteroinae (lionfish) species. Our results indicate that Pterois volitans, P. radiata and Dendrochirus zebra are able to produce long low-frequency hums when disturbed. The deliberate movements of the fin spines during sound production suggest that these sounds may serve as aposematic signals. In P. volitans and P. radiata, hums can be punctuated by intermittent louder pulses called knocks. Analysis of sonic features, morphology, electromyography and histology strongly suggest that these sounds are most likely produced by muscles closely associated with the swim bladder. These muscles originate from the neurocranium and insert on the posterior part of the swim bladder. Additionally, cineradiography supports the hypothesis that these same muscles are involved in altering the swim bladder's length and angle, thereby influencing the pitch of the fish body and participating in manoeuvring and locomotion movements. Fast contraction of the muscle should be related to sound production whereas sustained contractions allows modifications in swim bladder shape and body pitch.

Understanding the pain experience of lionfish envenomation.

Stings from the lionfish (Pterois volitans) constitute one of the most painful wounds in the ocean. This species has invaded the Atlantic coast of the United States, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, and Mediterranean Sea. In addition to its ecological impact on local fish populations, stings from the lionfish pose a medical problem because of the debilitating nature of the pain they produce. However, there are no studies examining the human pain experience of lionfish stings. To characterize the various aspects of the pain experience following a lionfish sting. We developed a pain questionnaire that includes validated scales used with patients having acute or chronic pain to understand the pain variability, as well as the use of health care resources and treatments. We provide the first study of the pain experience from lionfish stings. Here, we show that the pain is intense from the start and peaks approximately 1 hour later, resolving itself in 7 days for most victims. Furthermore, pain intensity can be influenced by several factors, including (1) age of the victim, where older victims experience significantly higher pain intensities, (2) the number of spines involved, (3) and whether infection occurred at the injury site. However, pain intensity was not different between male and female participants. These findings will inform the medical community on the pain experience and can be used by local authorities to better appreciate the impact of lionfish envenomations to develop programs aimed at curtailing the expansion of the lionfish.

Synopsis of exotic aquatic species present in the amazon continental shelf and adjacent areas

This study presents updated information on six exotic aquatic species (five crustaceans and one fish): Macrobrachium rosenbergii, Penaeus monodon, Charybdis hellerii, Balanus trigonus, Amphibalanus improvisus, and Pterois volitans. The research is based on bibliographic information available in scientific articles published by the Research Group Fishing and Evaluation of Tropical Fishery Resources and Biological and Photographic Records obtained from research projects conducted by CEPNOR/ICMBio. Currently, M. rosenbergii shrimp is classified as an invasive species, P. monodon is classified as a detected species, and C. hellerii is currently classified as an established species, but there are strong indications that it should be reclassified as invasive. The barnacles A. improvisus and B. trigonus have been classified as invasive, and lionfish P. volitans strongly exhibits advanced invasion process owing to its high frequency of capture in commercial fisheries.

The bioinvasion of lionfish Pterois volitans (Linnaeus - 1758) in brazilian waters: an urgent necessity to create strategies to contain the expansion of the species in Brazil

The lionfish Pterois volitans (Linnaeus, 1758) is considered the most well-established fish species in non-native regions around the world, causing severe environmental damage and risks for the food chain. In Brazil, the lionfish was reported for the first time in 2014 in the State of Rio de Janeiro, and currently, the P. volitans was observed in more eight States, being its high level of occurrence in the Northern region, which contains an immense biodiversity that has not been totally cataloged yet. Based on that, this study aims to ratify the occupation and permanent residence of the lionfish in the Great Amazon Reef System (GARS), which is an alert for the urgent need for developing control strategies for this invasive species in Brazil. The new specimens were collected in the State of Amapá, between 2021 and 2022, during commercial lobster fishing, using the method of “Caçoeira”, covering between 70 and 100 meters of depth, while for the snapper was collected with the manzuá, between 78 and 102 meters of depth. In the laboratory, the individuals were measured in total length (TL) and total weight (TW). 21 specimens of P. volitans from the GARS, the TL ranged from 21,5 to 35,6 cm with an average of 29,43 cm, while the TW ranged from 150,0 to 733,0 g, with an average of 413,8 g. These adult specimens reinforce the stabilization of the lionfish, which have probably completed reproductive cycles in the region, requiring an urgent action by environmental agencies to control the invasion of the lionfish in Brazil, becoming a future environmental impact on native biodiversity.

Serving conservation from reef to plate: Barriers and opportunities for invasive lionfish consumption in restaurants

Abstract Invasive lionfish (Pterois volitans, Pterois miles), introduced to Florida in the 1980s, colonized coral reef ecosystems in the western Atlantic and have been documented beyond recreational diving depths. In addition to threatening coral reef ecosystems, invasive lionfish have been linked to economic damage in the form of reduced native fish yields for local fishers and high management costs incurred in the physical removal of lionfish. While few examples exist of successful management of marine invasive species, studies show that lionfish removal can mitigate their harmful impacts. One promising market‐based approach that offers benefits to both human livelihoods and marine ecosystems is increasing the demand for the consumption of lionfish. This study focuses on Florida's consumptive lionfish market and fills a gap in understanding of the lionfish supply chain for Florida's restaurant industry. Twenty culinary professionals in Florida were interviewed to determine their perceptions of barriers and opportunities for increasing their use of lionfish. The most commonly identified barriers were price and consistency of supply, while the most prominent opportunities were improved awareness and culinary potential. Conservation managers, culinary professionals and policymakers should leverage these findings to facilitate opportunities, address barriers and promote public education about invasive lionfish and their impacts.

Isotopic niche partitioning between an invasive fish and two native mesopredators in the Colombian Caribbean

The ecological interactions between invasive species and members of the invaded community determine the impacts of biological invasions. Severe detrimental impacts of the invasive lionfish (Pterois volitans) in the Western-Atlantic have been well documented in northern regions of the invaded area. Yet, the fundamental nature of lionfish interactions with native predators remains unclear and understudied in the Southern Caribbean. Here, we use a series of quantitative tools applied on bulk muscle tissue stable isotope data (δ13C and δ15N), to compare inter and intraspecific isotopic niche metrics, similarity in the use of food resources, and the proportional contribution of two primary carbon sources to the diet of lionfish and two common ecologically similar mesopredators (Cephalopholis cruentata and Lutjanus mahogoni) in Taganga Bay (Colombian Caribbean). Limited overlap in the Bayesian standard ellipses of native mesopredators and lionfish suggested a substantial amount of partitioning in the use of food resources and, therefore, little apparent ecological impacts on native mesopredators by lionfish, in terms of strict competition for the use of food resources. Native mesopredators showed low trophic diversity, and a high degree of trophic redundancy (for C. cruentata). In contrast, lionfish had broad trophic diversity and high among-individual isotopic variability. This was consistent with Bayesian mixing models that revealed differential patterns in the importance of primary carbon sources in the diet of lionfish compared to native mesopredators. These results imply that different resource-consumer dynamics exist between lionfish and native mesopredators, despite fulfilling similar functional roles in the food web structure of Taganga bay, as indicated by similar Bayesian estimated trophic positions. Thus, our study highlights the importance of species-specific trophic characteristics in delineating invasive-native ecological interactions and constitutes the first study to examine trophic interactions among native mesopredators and the invasive lionfish in the Southern Caribbean.

Cutaneous ulcerative lesions of unknown etiology affecting lionfish Pterois spp. in the Gulf of Mexico.

Cutaneous ulcerative skin lesions in a complex of invasive Gulf of Mexico lionfish (Red Lionfish Pterois volitans, Devil Firefish P.miles, and the hybrid Red Lionfish × Devil Firefish) became epizootic beginning in mid-August 2017. Herein, we provide the first pathological descriptions of these lesions and summarize our analyses to elucidate the etiology of the disease. We examined ulcerated and normal fishthrough gross pathology and histopathology, bacterial sampling, and unbiased metagenomic next-generation sequencing. We tracked prevalence of the disease, and we used biological health indicators (condition factor, splenosomatic and hepatosomatic index) to evaluate impacts to health, while considering sex and age as potential risk factors. Typical ulcerative lesions were deep, exposing skeletal muscle, and were bordered by pale or reddened areas often with some degree of scale loss. Only incidental parasites were found in our examinations. Most fish (86%; n=50) exhibited wound healing grossly and histologically, confirmed by the presence of granulation tissues. A primary bacterial pathogen was not evident through bacterial culture or histopathology. Metagenomic next-generation sequencing did not reveal a viral pathogen (DNA or RNA) but did provide information about the microbiome of some ulcerated specimens. Compared with clinically healthy fish, ulcerated fish had a significantly lower condition factor and a higher splenosomatic index. Disease prevalence at monitored sites through July 2021 indicated that ulcerated fish were still present but at substantially lower prevalence than observed in 2017. Although some common findings in a number of specimens suggest a potential role for opportunistic bacteria, collectively our suite of diagnostics and analyses did not reveal an intralesional infectious agent, and we must consider the possibility that there was no communicable pathogen.

Predictions of current and potential global invasion risk in populations of lionfish (Pterois volitans and Pterois miles) under climate change scenarios

Predictions of current and potential global invasion risk in populations of lionfish (Pterois volitans and Pterois miles) under climate change scenarios

NORTHERNMOST BRAZILIAN RECORD OF LIONFISH Pterois volitans (LINNAEUS, 1758): A WARNING OF BIOINVASION IN FRENCH GUIANA WATERS

In this paper, we report the northernmost Brazilian record of the red lionfish Pterois volitans (Linnaeus, 1758), highlighting the risk of bioinvasion of the species in French Guiana waters. The specimen of P. volitans was accidentally caught in June 2023, by artisanal multispecies fishery with gillnets in coastal waters in the region of Orange Cape, Oiapoque (State of Amapá) (04°43'00"N, 051°25'00"W), bordering French Guiana. The adult individual (~36 cm) was collected at a depth of 36.5 m, in a sandy-clay substrate in the continental shelf. The record of the species in the most extreme point of Brazil indicates a strong bioinvasion process of P. volitans in tropical waters; so, this work alerts the risk of the spread of the species to other countries of South America with its possible invasion in French Guiana waters.

NOVAS OCORRÊNCIAS DE PEIXE-LEÃOPterois volitans (LINNAEUS, 1758) NA PESCADO PARGO Lutjanus purpureus (POEY, 1866) NA COSTA NORTE DO BRASIL/New occurrences of lionfish Pterois volitans(Linnaeus, 1758) on the fisheries of the red snapper Lutjanus purpureus (Poey, 1866) onthe north coast of Brazil

The bioinvasion of the lionfish Pterois volitans is increasingly being observed along thenorthern coast of Brazil, leading to risks to the environment, such as biodiversity reduction,and to the human health, due to incidents with the animal. Thus, we report new occurrencesof lionfish at the Great Amazon Reef System (GARS), caught by commercial fishing of thered snapper Lutjanus purpureus (Poey, 1866), along the continental shelf of the AmapáState, northern Brazil. Eight specimens of P. volitans were collected, between the depths of80,5 to 100 m, in August 2022. They were photographed in situ. The presence of P. volitansin commercial fisheries may indicate a large abundance of it in the region of Amazonianreefs, leading to risks to the environment and expanding the colonization in other regionsand other ecosystems, thus making urgent the creation of management plans to control theinvasion in Brazilian waters.

Food Composition and Dietary Overlap of the Lionfish Species in Iskenderun Bay

The food composition and dietary overlap of the Pterois volitans and P. miles were studied in the İskenderun Bay. The main prey groups found in the stomachs of the P. volitans and P. miles were fishes and crustaceans. The study has shown that the Niche overlap-Pianka's index of these species was 83,2%. Most of the stomach contents for both species were not identified. Fish and shirimps were found in the stomachs contents of both species freqently. However reef parts, moss residuals, molluscs shell parts and crab parts were found in the stomachs content for both species rarely. Chlorophthalmus agassizi, Uranoscopus scaber, Helicolenus dactylopterus, Serranidae, Sparidae and Scorpaenidae members have been identified as stomach contents of P. volitans. Similarly C. agassizi was identified in the stomach contents of P. miles. Conspicuously, juvenile lionfish and body parts of juvenile lionfishes (dorsal fin and spines) were found in 4 specimens stomachs of P. miles.

Direct estimates of reef fish abundance across an artificial reef network

Fisheries-independent surveys are commonly used to create indices of relative abundance. If properly designed and calibrated, these surveys may also be used to estimate absolute abundance. Here, we demonstrate the efficacy of this approach by estimating the absolute abundance of red lionfish ( Pterois volitans), gray triggerfish ( Balistes capriscus), and red snapper ( Lutjanus campechanus) across an extensive network of artificial reefs using camera counts, indices of relative abundance, calibration factors, and index-removal estimators. From 2012 to 2017, per reef estimates increased for red lionfish (20×), gray triggerfish (2.1×), and red snapper (2.2×). Network-wide absolute abundances were calculated by multiplying the average per reef estimate by the estimated number of reefs in the network. All increases were consistent with predictions of stock assessment (red snapper), management actions (gray triggerfish), or invasive species colonization (red lionfish). Our methodology demonstrates how estimates of absolute abundance can be derived from fishery-independent surveys and used to evaluate the outputs of stock assessments both in direction and magnitude and quantify critical ecosystem components.