Psychological Sense Of School Membership Research Articles

EFFECTIVENESS OF GRATITUDE INTERVENTIONS IN SCHOOLS TO INCREASE SENSE OF SCHOOL BELONGING TO HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

A sense of school belonging that tends to be low has an impact on problematic behavior at school, so effective psychological intervention is needed. One form of intervention carried out is gratitude intervention. This study aims to determine the effectiveness of gratitude interventions in increasing the sense of school belonging of high school students. This study uses a quantitative approach with the type of experimental research, and the design used is a pre-experimental one group pretest-posttest design. The research was conducted on students of SMA Negeri 5 Soppeng with 34 students. The determination of research participants was using the purposive sampling technique. Data were obtained by filling out the Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM) scale before and after the gratitude intervention. The validity of the PSSM scale was calculated using the Aiken's V test and obtained a coefficient of 0.88, while the reliability test used Cronbach's Alfa, with a reliability coefficient value of 0.86. The data analysis technique uses the N-Gain score test. The results showed that the average score of sense of school belonging before the intervention was 40.15, while after the intervention it increased to 73.5, the results of the hypothesis test using the difference index (N Gain Score) recorded an increase of 55.9. Thus, the hypothesis in this study is accepted, which means that gratitude interventions in schools are quite effective in increasing the sense of school belonging of high school students.

Perceived School Belonging Among Youth with Chronic Physical Illness.

In a sample of youth aged 10-16years with chronic physical illness, this study examined psychometric properties of a modified Psychological Sense of School Membership (m-PSSM) scale; described longitudinal trends in perceptions over 24months; and, identified factors associated with school belonging. Youth were recruited from a pediatric hospital in Canada. A total of 105 youth attended school in the past year and provided self-reports. The four-item m-PSSM had a unidimensional structure which was measurement invariant between youth in elementary (10-13years) versus secondary school (14-16years). Internal consistency was (ω > .80). There was no evidence that m-PSSM scores changed significantly over time (η2 = 0.05). Predictors of lower perceived school belonging were being in secondary school, having psychopathology, reporting lower quality of life in the domains of social support and school environment, experiencing peer victimization, and living in a community with higher residential instability and lower material deprivation.

Analysis of factors influencing medical students’ learning engagement and its implications for teaching work—— a network analysis perspective

PurposeHigher medical education has always been a major project in the fields of education and health, and therefore, the quality of education has received much attention. Learning engagement has emerged as a significant indicator of teaching quality, attracting considerable research attention. This study aims to explore the relationship between medical students’ learning engagement and their sense of school belonging, professional identity, and academic self-efficacy.MethodsWe conducted an online survey using convenience sampling method with 311 medical students. We employed Revised version of the Utrech Work Engagement Scale-Student (UWES-S), Chinese version of the Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM) scale, Academic Self-Efficacy Scale, and the questionnaire of college students’ speciality identity for evaluation. Network analysis was used to analyze the relationships among these factors.ResultsMedical students’ overall performance in school showed a positive trend. However, there is still room for improvement. In the network structure of learning engagement and its influencing factors, the “emotional” aspect of professional identity (EI = 1.11) was considered to be an important node with strong centrality. And “academic competence self-efficacy” aspect of academic self-efficacy (BEI = 0.72) was considered an important node with strong transitivity.ConclusionDeepening medical students’ emotional identification with their profession and enhancing their confidence in their academic abilities may improve their learning engagement and educational quality.

A Dakota Cultural Intervention’s Influence on Native Students’ Sense of Belonging: A CBPR Case Study

This community-based participatory research case study demonstrates how Dakota Wicoḣaƞ utilized Indigenous and feminist epistemologies to create, implement, and evaluate a cultural intervention, the Mni Sota Makoce: Dakota Homelands Curriculum, to increase Native 6th- and 10th-grade social studies students’ peoplehood sense of belonging (Tachine et al., 2017). Findings demonstrate Native students liked the curriculum and reported an increase in support and a decrease in invalidation of their sense of belonging. While the curriculum provided a source of racial-ethnic socialization, some European American students criticized the curriculum, which likely negatively impacted 6th-grade students psychological sense of school membership (Goodenow, 1993). Results indicate Indigenous culture, epistemologies, and pedagogies should be infused throughout all curricula, teachers need to be prepared to effectively deal with racist and discriminatory behavior, and Indian education is important to Native students’ belonging. Implications and recommendations for funders, schools, researchers, teacher education programs, and Native communities are discussed.

How school belongingness in diverse students moderates student perceptions of teachers' cultural humility in predicting student–teacher working alliance

AbstractStudent–teacher relationships and school belongingness are both strong predictors for students' academic success (Goodenow & Grady, 1993; Hattie, 2009). Experiences related to their cultural identities also inform how they perceive their educational environment (Kutsyuruba et al., 2015) and may also predict academic success. Although current literature supports all three constructs as separate predictors of academic success, the current study examined the relationship between student perceptions of their teacher's cultural humility and student–teacher working alliance, with student perceptions of school belonging as a moderator. Sixth‐grade students from an urban, central Arkansas middle school (n = 334) considered a teacher with whom they had prolonged contact (e.g., two interactions a day, including mentoring and academic instruction), and responded to questions from three scales, the Cultural Humility Scale (predictor), the Classroom Working Alliance Inventory (outcome), and the Psychological Sense of School Membership (moderator). Results showed that student perceptions of teacher's cultural humility predicted student–teacher working alliance and that this relationship was slightly stronger for those students with low levels of school belongingness. The importance of all three variables in understanding student success has implications for teacher and school psychologist training programs.

Examining the relationship between student attributional style, perceived teacher fairness, and sense of school belonging

Teacher fairness is a major concern for secondary students and significantly influences their sense of school belonging. This study investigated the relationship between Australian secondary students’ perception of teacher fairness and school belonging, and the indirect effects of student attributional style on that relationship. A sample of 269 students was collected from online surveys, which used the Psychological Sense of School Membership, Teacher Justice Scale, and Adolescent Cognitive Style Questionnaire to measure the key variables. Correlational analysis (two-tailed) revealed a positive relationship between perceived teacher fairness and school belonging, r (269) = 0.47, p <.001, and a negative relationship between maladaptive student attributional style with perceived teacher fairness, r (269) = -0.18, p <.001, and school belonging, r (269) = -0.28, p <.001. Additionally, a multiple regression analysis found that the variability in both student attributional style and perceived teacher fairness jointly explained around 26% of the variability in school belonging. Moreover, student attributional style partly mediated the relationship between perceived teacher fairness and school belonging, with an estimated statistically significant indirect effect of 0.03 units and a dominant direct effect of 0.31 units. These results confirm perceived teacher fairness as an essential ingredient for a positive teacher-student relationship and sense of school belonging. Findings from this study provide implications for classroom justice research and highlight the potential for applying framing interventions to students’ perceptions of teacher fairness to improve teacher-student relationships and enhance students’ sense of school belonging.

Examining the Psychological Sense of School Membership among the Basic School Students

Studies on Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM) have been widespread globally for three decades. However, it has not been discussed in the context of Nepali schools’ education. A positive sense of belongingness to schools among the students is essential to foster their good academic achievement as well as their mental health. Furthermore, it also increases students’ motivation and peer adjustment. This study uncovers the sense of school belongingness of grade eight students in community schools in Nepal employing a descriptive survey design under quantitative research. The five points PSSM scale, a valid and widely used measurement scale, has been used to examine the students’ perceptions about their school membership. Four major concepts have emerged from the data analysis: sense of attachment with school, sense of acceptance, sense of school ownership, and sense of respect and honour. Results revealed that students lack a strong sense of membership towards their school although they have feelings of attachment with their school. While students have a strong perceived sense of school ownership, they feel of being a weaker relationship with their teachers. Therefore, the study has immediate application to create awareness about the psychological sense of school membership among students and PSSM into academic discourse so that the Ministry of Education can initiate the necessary measures for improved students’ learning.

Analysing the attitude and opinions of a ‘difficult’ year group in a secondary school

ABSTRACT This paper reports a small-scale action research project aimed at helping a school whose teachers were concerned about the behaviour and achievement of their Year 8 group. Two focus group was used to identify any worries or concerns of pupils in Key Stage 3 (Years 7–9; aged 11–14). These concerns were further explored using a ranking exercise completed by all 486 pupils across the three year groups. The same pupils then completed the ‘Psychological Sense of School Membership’ questionnaire. The results of the ranking exercise are reported. The pupils’ scores on the PSSM questionnaire suggests that pupils in Year 8 identified least with the aims of the school. The scores did show that a third (33%) of the pupils in Year 8 scored at a level regarded as ‘of serious concern’on the PSSM questionnaire indicating a negative view of the school. The results of the both exercises were shared with the teachers and a plan drawn up th improve the school's pupil management. Further development of this initiative was bought to a halt by the closure of the school in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

The effect of school and peer connectedness on adolescent mental health outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic: a longitudinal panel survey

BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic, school closures, and social distancing measures have disrupted young people's daily routines, learning, and social relationships. We examine the changes in adolescent mental health over time and explore the relationship between how connected students felt to their school and peers before the pandemic and how this affected their mental health during school closures and on return to school. MethodsThis is a longitudinal three-wave panel survey with students aged 13–15 years in 17 secondary schools across the South West of England. Students completed a self-report survey before the pandemic (October, 2019), during the first UK lockdown (May, 2020), and shortly after returning to school (October, 2020). Matched data across all three waves were available for 603 students. Anxiety and depression were measured using the Hospital Anxiety & Depression Scale (HADS). School connectedness was measured using six items adapted from the Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM) scale. Peer connectedness was measured using a seven-item subscale as published by Jose, Ryan, and Pryor (2012). The study was approved by the University of Bristol Medical School ethics committee (reference 84883). FindingsThere was an overall decrease in anxiety score from before the pandemic (median 7, IQR 4–11) to during the first UK lockdown (median 6, IQR 3–10). Wilcoxon signed-rank tests indicated that this difference was statistically significant (z=–7·061, p<0·0001). Anxiety levels then increased on return to school (median 8, IQR 4–11), which was also statistically significant (z=6·983, p<0·0001). No changes were observed for levels of depression over the three timepoints. Low school connectedness at baseline predicted a significant increase in anxiety when students returned to school (β 1·33, 95% CI 0·55–2·11; p=0·001). No significant association was found between low peer connectedness before the pandemic and anxiety levels on return to school (β 0·53, 95% CI –0·24 to 1·30; p=0·175). InterpretationOur findings suggest that most students adapted well to school closures, and in fact experienced less anxiety than before the pandemic. Students who reported feeling poorly connected to school before the pandemic are likely to experience higher levels of anxiety on return to school. This study highlights the need for routine mental health and wellbeing monitoring in schools to identify key areas of support and to inform school-based public health interventions. FundingThe National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) School for Public Health Research (SPHR).

Predictors of psychosocial adjustment in Syrian refugee children attending Lebanese public schools

To recognize the role schools play in the acclimatization of refugee children to their new life in the host country, we sought to investigate the psychosocial adjustment of Syrian refugee students enrolled in Lebanese public schools. Psychosocial adjustment involves both the emotional and behavioral wellbeing of children and is measured using the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Psychosocial adjustment is also consistently linked to school belonging which, in turn, can be assessed using the Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM) scale. The aim of this study is to identify associations between psychosocial adjustment, determined by the SDQ and PSSM scale, and both (1) sociodemographics (age, gender, parental level of education and length of stay in the host country) and (2) classroom environment in Lebanese public schools in the greater Beirut area. A total of 410 Syrian refugee students (222 females) with a mean age of 11.4 years, who arrived in Lebanon between the years 2011 and 2017, were included in the study. The results showed a very weak correlation between older age and psychosocial maladjustment measured using the SDQ (r = .10, p = .04). Additionally, girls had a better psychosocial adjustment than boys (mean PSSM-scale score: 70.7 ± 10.1 Vs. 67.4 ± 11.8, p = .0014). On multivariate linear regression, there was a strong positive correlation between the classroom environment and psychosocial adjustment (p < .001). Policies addressing the emotional needs of Syrian refugee children in Lebanese public schools and promoting their psychosocial adjustment are needed.

A Longitudinal Investigation of First-Generation College Students’ Mentoring Relationships During Their Transition to Higher Education

Non-parent mentoring relationships are important protective factors for first-generation college students. Previous research has focused on singular mentoring relationships measured at one time point, failing to capture the breadth and dynamic nature of social networks. The current study is a longitudinal investigation of first-generation students’ mentoring networks during their transition to college at a four-year, predominantly minority-serving commuter university. At the beginning and end of their first year, students (N = 176) responded to online surveys on their mentoring relationship(s), attitudes toward help-seeking, and college experiences. Cumulative support from pre-college mentoring relationships retained across the first year was positively associated with self-efficacy. Support from newly acquired mentoring relationships was positively associated with psychological sense of school membership. Network orientation was positively associated with self-efficacy and sense of school membership. These findings highlight the importance of diverse mentoring networks and demonstrate the utility of collecting longitudinal data on multiple mentoring relationships.

Attached or not attached: Does different learning styles exist among students with or without sense of belonging amidst covid-19?

This study was about peer attachment and learning styles being moderated by a sense of belonging among students during the COVID-19 era. Using an analytical cross-sectional survey design, 284 final-year undergraduates were selected through stratified-proportionate and convenient sampling procedures. Data was gathered from the respondents using Learning Preference Scale (Owens &amp;amp; Straton, 1980), Adolescent Friendship Attachment Scale (Wilkinson, 2008) and Psychological Sense of School Membership (Goodenow, 1993). The data was analysed using descriptive (Frequencies and Percentages) and inferential statistics (Multivariate Multiple Regression, Simple Moderation with Hayes Process Macro and Multivariate Analysis of Variance).The study revealed that most students engaged in less peer attachment, felt less sense of belonging while secure attachment predicted the individual learning style of students. Furthermore, secure attachment and anxious attachments predicted the cooperative learning style of students while anxious attachment and avoidant attachment predicted the competitive learning style of students. Further, a sense of belonging moderated not peer attachment and learning styles of students, while no significant differences were found between male and female students in terms of peer attachment, learning styles, and sense of belonging. Therefore, it was recommended that students should practice individual learning styles most often but could collaborate with a few colleagues in some academic situations during this period of COVID-19. This is to help foster closeness and belongingness among the students.

The Physician Assistant Student Experience: Diversity, Stress, and School Membership.

This article investigates whether students' stress and psychological sense of school membership (PSSM), which influence their ability to navigate the rigors of PA education, vary by their demographic characteristics. In 2017, 4050 matriculating and 2718 graduating PA students reported their demographics and feelings of stress. Graduating students also reported their PSSM. Multiple regressions explored whether students' demographics were associated with their stress and PSSM. Stress analyses controlled for student type (ie, matriculating versus graduating). Female, underrepresented minority (URM), and graduating students reported more stress when compared to male, non-URM, and matriculating students. URM students reported lower PSSM relative to non-URMs. URM students' experiences from entering a profession that is predominantly non-Hispanic White may increase stress and reduce PSSM, possibly contributing to lower educational satisfaction and on-time completion rates identified in previous research.

Piloting career development: Whole school interventions

Background: The article reports on a project that was undertaken as a pilot study for a whole-school approach (WSA) to career education intervention that was integrated into the Grade 10, Life Orientation (LO) curriculum at a public, secondary school in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.Objectives: Using an ecological framework, interventions to improve learners’ future orientation and motivation were piloted with Grade 10 learners’ at the micro-, meso- and macro-level to inform career education.Method: An approach, using an intervention and control school involving three phases was conducted. The mixed method evaluation involved the administration of baseline questionnaires to all Grade 10 learners and included, the Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM), the Future Orientation Scale (FOS). Multivariate analysis and repeated measures of analysis and variance were also conducted. Qualitatively, process evaluation using fidelity checklists and post intervention interviews, with key informants was conducted. Focus group sessions with learners were also utilised.Results: The findings support how career learning can be integrated and evaluated in a whole- school curriculum. In a WSA, an integrated system of career education in every secondary school is proposed.Conclusion: This research supports the call for career education to be shifted from a peripheral to a central role that can be integrated into the curriculum. This study, although in a limited way, supports the need for broader, contextual approaches to career development, and acknowledges the vital role school membership and career development play in the mental health promotion of adolescents.

Konseling Kelompok Eksistensial untuk Meningkatkan Sense of School Belonging pada Siswa SMK Se-Kota Yogyakarta

EXISTENTIAL GROUP COUNSELING TO IMPROVE SENSE OF SCHOOL BELONGING IN VOCATIONAL SCHOOL STUDENTS IN YOGYAKARTA CITY. The aim of this study was to develop existential group conseling model to increase sense of belonging vocational school stundents in Yogyakarta. The development of group counseling models using an existential approach is one alternative that can be used to improve the sense of school belonging. The type of research used is Research and Development model that developed by Borg and Gall. The research subjects were students of State Vocational Schools in Yogyakarta who had low sense of school belonging. Data collection techniques using the sense of school belonging scale adapted from The Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM) Scale, developed by Carol Goodenow. Through testing the model, it is known that the average posttest score has increased from 42.75 to 52.75, meaning that the average value of students' sense of school belonging has changed by 10. As for the minimum value, the pretest scores obtained the minimum student is 34.00 in the low category, experiencing a change in grades when the post-test becomes 42.00 in the medium category, meaning that there are no students in the low category. For the maximum score, which in the pretest the maximum value of the students is 47.00 in the medium category, it changes in the score at the post test to be 65.00 in the high category.

The Development of the French Version of the Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM) Questionnaire: An Analysis of its Structure, Properties and Potential for Research with at-risk Students

Introduction. As it plays an important role in students' adjustment, and positively impacts their motivation and academic success, school belonging seems to be a pivotal determinant of the overall quality of a school experience. However, measuring such a belonging and estimating its contribution to the overall quality of school adjustment remain a challenge for the scientific community. Method. Thus, the French version of the Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM) questionnaire was tested to determine its latent structure, validity, and capacity to predict dropout among at-risk students. In Study 1, the French version of the PSSM scale was thoroughly analyzed for validity while performing exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and multigroup confirmatory factor analysis on self-reported data provided by a sample of high school students. In study 2, answers of a particular sample of at-risk students were carefully analyzed with ANOVAS to determine the potential of the PSSM to predict high school dropout. Results. The exploratory factor analysis and the confirmatory factor analysis revealed four predominant dimensions: (1) teacher-student relationships; (2) peers' relationships; (3) sense of acceptance; and (4) sense of attachment, while the multigroup confirmatory factor analysis revealed the PSSM to be partially invariant with regards to the gender of the participants. In Study 2, we found that the PSSM can be used as a tool to help identify students who are at risk of dropping out of school. Conclusion. Strategies to develop students' school belonging are discussed.

Modeling the Relationships among Academic Identity, Psychological Sense of School Membership, and Teacher Support: The Mediating Role of Academic Adjustment in Academic Performance

Introduction: This study was conducted to model the relationships of academic identity, psychosocial sense of school membership, and teacher support with academic performance by the mediating role of academic adjustment. Materials and Methods: In this cross-sectional research, structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to analyze the relationships. The statistical sample of the study (n=422) were students selected by multi-stage cluster sampling method. The instruments used to gather the necessary data were the following questionnaires: Adjustment Inventory for School Students, Academic Identity Status Scale, Psychological Sense of School Membership Scale, and Teacher Emotional Support Scale. Furthermore, the studentchr('39')s grade point average in the current semester was considered as a measure of academic performance. The collected data were analyzed in AMOS software (version 24) using path analysis and SEM. Results: The direct affecting analysis results revealed that the variables of moratorium identity and achievement identity, psychological sense of school membership, and academic adjustment each had a direct significant effect on studentschr('39') academic performance (P&lt;0.05). However, there was no significant relationship between teacher affective support and studentschr('39') academic performance (P&gt;0.05). The results of the indirect-affecting analysis showed that such variables as moratorium, diffusion, and achievement identity, psychological sense of school membership, and teacher affective support by the mediating role of academic adjustment had a significant effect on academic performance (P&lt;0.05). Conclusion: The results showed that besides the teacher affective support, some aspects of academic identity, psychological sense of school membership, and academic adjustment had a significant effect on studentschr('39') academic performance. Therefore, it is recommended to develop programs based on the variables of this study to increase studentschr('39') academic performance.

Bullying victimization, school belonging, academic engagement and achievement in adolescents in rural China: A serial mediation model

This study aims to understand how bullying victimization impacts on adolescents' academic achievement through the serial mediation of school belonging and academic engagement in rural China. Altogether 813 rural adolescents in southwestern China (359 boys, 454 girls, M age = 15 years, SD = 0.00) completed the Multidimensional Peer Victimization Scale-Revised (MPVS-R), Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM) scale, Utrecht Work Engagement Scale-Student, and the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) tests. The results indicated that: (1) boys reported significantly higher bullying victimization and lower school belonging and academic engagement than girls; (2) school belonging and academic engagement were identified the serial mediators between bullying victimization and academic achievement in the models for the whole sample and boys group; (3) the mediation model for girls group differed from that for boys, as academic engagement did not predict academic achievement in girls. The findings highlight the importance of fostering a positive school climate to fight against negative consequences associated with bullying victimization.

SALaMA study protocol: a mixed methods study to explore mental health and psychosocial support for conflict-affected youth in Detroit, Michigan

BackgroundFamilies resettling to the U.S. from conflict-affected countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) face countless challenges. These families must cope with experiences of armed conflict and forced migration while also assimilating to a new society. According to the ‘immigrant paradox,’ time spent in a new country can compound the effects of migration and assimilation challenges and lead to deteriorated mental health. This study aims to assess the psychosocial wellbeing of MENA-born or first-generation adolescents attending school in the Detroit metropolitan area (DMA) to understand how schools, families, and communities play a role in supporting these adolescents’ wellbeing.MethodsThe quantitative component of this mixed methods study will involve a self-administered survey with a sample of students whose responses will be linked to academic records and behavioral assessments. The survey will utilize validated instruments to measure depressive and anxiety symptoms (Hopkins Symptom Checklist-37A), hope (Children’s Hope Scale), resilience (Child and Youth Resilience Measure-12), externalizing and prosocial behavior (Hopkins Symptom Checklist-37A, Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire), school belonging (Psychological Sense of School Membership), and peer relationships (Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support). Differences in outcomes will be analyzed across two strata: students born in the MENA region and first-generation students whose parents immigrated to the US from the MENA region. The qualitative component will involve semi-structured key informant interviews with parents, school administrators, educators, and mental health providers, and focus group discussions (FGDs) with a purposive sample of adolescents born – or whose parents were born - in the MENA region. The FGDs will include a participatory ranking activity where participants will be asked to free-list and rank ideas about how schools can better support students like them. Thematic content analysis will be conducted to identify common themes.DiscussionThis study will contribute evidence about the wellbeing of adolescents who come from – or whose parents come from - conflict-affected countries currently living in the U.S. Findings can be used to inform program and policy development to enable schools and their community partners to serve this population more effectively.

‘How do I know that I belong?’ Exploring secondary aged pupils’ views on what it means to belong to their school

Aim(s)To explore secondary aged pupils’ perceptions of school belonging across the age range using a mixed-methods, quantitative and qualitative approach, with emphasis on the latter.RationaleMuch research has been from adults’ construction of sense of school belonging, rather than pupils’ perspectives. The intention of this research was to address that gap.MethodPupils’ views were obtained through the Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM) Scale and semi-structured interviews in small, tutor-based groups. Thematic analysis was applied to the group interview data, and information from the PSSM was analysed to look for patterns across year groups and across two schools.FindingsThe average PSSM scores were surprisingly homogeneous (between 3.7 and 4.0) within the statistical limits. A thematic analysis of the semi-structured interviews revealed themes of familiarity, identification with others and with the school, and reciprocity of relationships. While definitions of school belonging appeared to be homogeneous, across the year groups, there were slight differences in focus on what it meant to belong.LimitationsThe study was relatively small, cross sectional rather than longitudinal, and the data collection process meant that thematic analysis was only possible on transcripts from the larger school.ConclusionsThe findings generally aligned with the existing literature on school belonging, highlighted the similarities in definitions across year groups, and reaffirmed the value of listening to young people’s views. Because of the numbers, any quantitative differences between pupil responses are at the margins of statistical viability. However, slight qualitative differences in focus from year to year were in evidence.