Przewalski Horse Equus Ferus Przewalskii Research Articles

Unicorn “holotype” skeleton from the Late Pleistocene spotted hyena den site Sewecken‐Berge (Germany)

AbstractLate Pleistocene Ice Age spotted hyena remains are described from the “Unicorn holotype skeleton” gypsum karst site Quedlinburg‐Sewecken‐Berge, Germany (Central Europe). The hyena population consists of adolescent to late adult individuals (96% of hyena NISP; 15% of megafauna NISP) indicating a commuting den site type. The comparisons to other European bone assemblages support hunting specialization on woolly rhinoceros (19% of NISP) and horses (27% of NISP). Specialization on bovids (Bison/Bos) can be added for this site. The megafauna contain few Eemian warm period remains of a large horse Equus ferus fossilis. Most (95%) of the megafauna is attributed to the Late Pleistocene glacial (Weichselian/Wuermian). Horse bones are dominated by distal leg elements from the smaller Przewalski horses Equus ferus przewalskii (26% of NISP). The Unicorn “holotype” skeleton originates from a composed horse skull, vertebrae and front legs, whereas the elephant remains added to this biologically not valid species must have been a straight‐tusked elephant tusk.

Mapping of Vegetation with the Geoinformation System and Determining of Carrying Capacity of the Pre-Urals Steppe area for a Newly Establishing Population of the Przewalski Horse Equus ferus przewalskii at the Orenburg State Nature Reserve

Mapping of the vegetation (1:25000) of the Pre-Urals Steppe area at the Orenburg State Nature Reserve was completed in 2016. A map created with the geoinformation system contains 1931 simple and complex polygons for 25 types of vegetation. In a drought year, the average stock of palatable vegetation of the whole area is estimated at 8380 tons dry weight. The estimation is based on the size of areas covered by different types of vegetation, their grass production, the correction coefficients for decreasing of pasture forage stocks in winter and decreasing of production of grass communities in dry years. Based on pasture forage stocks the area could tolerate the maximum population size of 1769 individuals of the Przewalski horse, their average density could be 0.11 horse per ha. Yet, as watering places for animals are limited in Pre-Urals Steppe, grazing pressures on the vegetation next to the water sources may increase in dry years. That is why the above-mentioned calculated maximum population size and density must be reduced at least by half until some additional watering places are established and monitoring of the grazing effect on the vegetation next to the places is carried out regularly. Thus, the maximum size of the population is estimated at 800 to 900 individuals, which is almost 1.5 times more than necessary to establish a self-sustained population of the Przewalski horse.

Activity patterns, chronobiology and the assessment of stress and welfare in zoo and wild animals

The organization of life in time, and thus behavioural and physiological rhythms, are vital for all animals. Today, the aspect of ecological time niche is still often underestimated, ignored or rejected and, moreover, knowledge of the species-specific characteristics of natural temporal adaptations is often lacking. For most animals, neglecting time as an important dimension in analyses may lead to serious problems, especially in zoos or agriculture where animals are living under conditions completely dictated by humans or partially exposed to conditions that are often detached from their natural environments. The paper will give examples of studies on Przewalski horse Equus ferus przewalskii in semi-reserves, Red deer Cervus elaphus and Mouflon Ovis orientalis musimon in game enclosures, and on various zoo animals, which show that chronobiological investigations have a high indicative potential and provide an insight into ecological connections. New non-invasive measuring methods and powerful methods of data analysis provide the potential to include chronobiological studies as routine components of modern animal-husbandry methods, in management issues and in monitoring systems for zoo animal welfare.

Scent‐marking behaviour by stallions: an assessment of function in a reintroduced population of Przewalski horses (Equus ferus przewalskii)

AbstractScent marking is a common form of intraspecific communication in mammal species, and using faeces or urine is a cost‐effective way of signalling competitive ability and resource holding power. Marking is ritually performed by male equids, and here we assess the function of male scent‐marking behaviour in a recently introduced population of Przewalski horses Equus ferus przewalskii in Mongolia. Two forms of scent marking were observed: defecation on stud piles formed from repeated dunging in the same place, and overmarking of faeces and urine of mares. Stud piles were marked with dung by the harem holder and sniffed before and after dung was deposited. They were not found specifically at the periphery of harem ranges but occurred for the most part along routes used by the horses, and were more common in the core parts of harem ranges or where harem ranges overlapped. Thus, rather than being used to defend range boundaries, stud piles were placed predominantly where they would be encountered by male intruders. Mare excreta were covered with urine by the stallion, but were only sniffed before they were marked, not after. These marks appear to advertise to the mare and other, intruding stallions that the harem holder was the mare's consort and that the interloper should not risk trying to steal the mare or sneak a mating. Thus, the two forms of marking by harem holders appear to combine as first and second lines of defence of paternity rights in male intrasexual competition.