Intelligent Proxy Research Articles

Investigating how early academic performance and parental socio-economic status predict and explain successful completion of secondary education in Germany

In educational sociology, it is of greatest interest to explain why some students are more successful than others and obtain higher educational qualifications or receive better grades, which can have long-lasting consequences. The present study compares the influence of early academic performance, which can be regarded as a proxy of overall intelligence, to the socio-economic status (SES) of the family, which measures how much a family can invest in the education of their offspring. Using large-scale German NEPS panel data (N = 5,208), the analyses test statistically how much variance of two outcome variables (acquisition of higher education eligibility and final grade) are explained by academic performance and SES; both measured approximately 9 years earlier at the beginning of secondary education. Dominance analyses reveal that performance has a larger influence (ca. 14% for both outcomes) than SES (ca. 8% for eligibility and ca. 4% for grades). Regression analyses show that high performance can better compensate for low SES than vice versa. These results indicate that performance is probably more relevant for academic success than the SES of one’s own family.

The KLC Cultures' Synergy Power, Trust, and Tacit Knowledge for Organizational Intelligence

This paper examines the impact of knowledge, learning, and collaboration cultures synergy (the KLC approach) on organizational adaptability. The SEM analysis method was applied to verify the critical assumption of this paper that the KLC approach supports knowledge-sharing processes (tacit and explicit) and that both matter for organizational intelligence activation. The empirical evidence, based on a 640-case sample composed of Polish knowledge workers, exposed that knowledge sharing, organizational intelligence, and innovativeness are vital benefits of the KLC cultures’ synergy and showed that trust among workmates is critical to sustaining tacit knowledge sharing in an organization. Tacit knowledge is clearly exposed as an essential ingredient of change adaptability, which is seen as a proxy for organizational intelligence. Moreover, the mistakes acceptance component of learning culture supporting trial-error-learnings is noted as tremendous for knowledge-sharing processes, organizational intelligence (change adaptability), and innovativeness. This study proved that knowledge sharing, organizational intelligence, and innovativeness are vital benefits of the synergy that offers the KLC cultures. Trust strengthens this effect. So, to gain these benefits, knowledge-driven organizations should employ trusted managers who trust others and, in addition to their professional credentials, exhibit strong habits of respecting knowledge, learning, and collaboration.

Infants of mothers with early remitted clinical depression and mothers with no postpartum depression: Adaptive functioning in the second year of life.

Whether and how remitted clinical depression in postpartum motherhood contributes to poor infant adaptive functioning is inconclusive. The present longitudinal study examines adaptive functioning in infants of mothers diagnosed as clinically depressed at 5 months but remitted at 15 and 24 months. Fifty-five U. S. mothers with early, remitted clinical depression and 132 mothers without postpartum depression completed the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales about their infants at 15 and 24 months. Between groups, mothers were equivalent in age, ethnicity, marital status, and receptive vocabulary (a proxy for verbal intelligence), and infants were equivalent in age and distribution of gender. Controlling for maternal education and parity, mothers with early, remitted clinical depression and mothers with no postpartum depression rated their infants similarly on communication, daily living skills, and socialization. Mothers with early, remitted clinical depression rated their infants poorer in motor skills. Girls were rated more advanced than boys in communication at 24 months and daily living skills at 15 and 24 months. Rated infant adaptive behavior skills increased from 15 to 24 months. With exceptions, adaptive functioning in infants may be robust to early, remitted maternal depression, and adaptive functioning presents a domain to promote positive development in this otherwise vulnerable population.

Innovative problem solving by wild falcons

Innovation (i.e., a new solution to a familiar problem, or applying an existing behavior to a novel problem1,2) plays a fundamental role in species' ecology and evolution. It can be a useful measure for cross-group comparisons of behavioral and cognitive flexibility and a proxy for general intelligence.3,4,5 Among birds, experimental studies of innovation (and cognition more generally) are largely from captive corvids and parrots,6,7,8,9,10,11,12 though we lack serious models for avian technical intelligence outside these taxa. Striated caracaras (Phalcoboenus australis) are Falconiformes, sister clade to parrots and passerines,13,14,15 and those endemic to the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) show curiosity and neophilia similar to notoriously neophilic kea parrots16,17 and face similar socio-ecological pressures to corvids and parrots.18,19 We tested wild striated caracaras as a new avian model for technical cognition and innovation using a field-applicable 8-task comparative paradigm (adapted from Rössler et al.20and Auersperg etal.21). The setup allowed us to assess behavior, rate, and flexibility of problem solving over repeated exposure in a natural setting. Like other generalist species with low neophobia,21,22 we predicted caracaras to demonstrate a haptic approach to solving tasks, flexibly switching to new, unsolved problems and improving their performance over time. Striated caracaras performed comparably to tool-using parrots,20 nearly reaching ceiling levels of innovation in few trials, repeatedly and flexibly solving tasks, and rapidly learning. We attribute our findings to the birds' ecology, including geographic restriction, resource unpredictability, and opportunistic generalism,23,24,25 and encourage future work investigating their cognitive abilities in the wild. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Aligning Strategic Intelligence and Graduate Employability: A Conceptual Review

The purpose of this paper is to present a framework for scholars carrying out reviews of research that meet international standards for publication. Conceptualizing the factors that determine graduate employability and how it relates to strategic intelligence. A set of propositions are presented using three themes namely: strategic intelligence, career counselling and skill gap. This is primarily a conceptual paper focusing on the approach of performing systematic reviews. Nevertheless, the paper builds on a database of previously done research in graduate employability, career development, and strategic intelligence. The paper uses narrative examples from empirical reviews to further explain the parts of the conceptual framework drawing from theoretical frameworks of human capital theory and adaptive theory. The study also alludes to specific findings from previous research to demonstrate general trends in how the framework's main aspects have been used in exemplary reviews. The contribution of this paper is to emphasize the importance of students developing strategic intelligence in order to be employable. It is intended that this conceptual framework would give helpful methodological input in enhancing long-standing efforts in graduate employability, and career development discipline to progress knowledge in a more methodical and coherent manner. The paper reveals that foresight and environmental intelligence are proxies for strategic intelligence and when applied to career counselling, they will result in new capacity outcomes that are more suitable to the energy requirements and other sustainable green technologies via university career counsel partnerships with government and industry. It also revealed that, when a student can predict the direction of their desired industry, he or she can develop the necessary skill sets to be employable after graduation. Finally, it found out that the alignment of strategic intelligence and graduate employability helps in recruitment effectiveness and improves efficiency in the entire career ecosystem processes. Apart from undergraduates, the paper proposes a practical framework for universities, graduates, and industry to help produce employable personnel and entrepreneurs, as well as a set of requirements for maintaining employability in a career ecosystem. The paper contributes to theory by integrating strategic intelligence and graduate employability literature by recognizing shared characteristics of fast and continuous learning, as well as foresight. Thus this paper helps to bridge the gaps in respective research agendas. As a result, this research is unique in that it contributes to the advancement of human capital theory, graduate employability, and strategic intelligence. Keywords: Graduate Employability, Strategic Intelligence, Career Counselling, Skill Gap, Education for Sustainable Development

STEM learning, science identity and immersivity: Giant screen films comparing 2D, 3D, and dome formats including a videogame assessment

Multiple assessments, including a novel videogame methodology, were used to understand how viewing a Giant Screen film in four different formats affected both science identity associated with liking science and desire to be a scientist, and learning gains on STEM content. Participants were 406 5th graders who were randomly assigned to watch the 45-min film called Amazon Adventure in either a (1) 2D Small Screen, (2) 2D Giant Flat Screen, (3) 3D Giant Flat Screen, or (4) curved Dome condition. The conditions increased in levels of immersivity as listed. In this 4 × 3 design, the first factor was viewing condition and the second was test time including pretests, posttests, and two-month followup on content knowledge tests relating to natural selection. The strongest pattern was seen at the followup time point where the three more immersive conditions (2D Giant Screen, 3D Giant Screen, and Dome) outperformed the Small Screen condition on the science identity measures of liking science and wanting to be a scientist when grown up. Additionally, two of the more immersive conditions performed significantly better at both posttest and followup on the videogame that assessed natural selection and mimicry knowledge. Significant gender effects at followup revealed that females in the two most immersive conditions (3D Flat and Dome) liked science significantly more and wanted to be a scientist more than males when grown. Interestingly, females also played the videogame significantly better than the males at both posttest and followup. These results suggest that increases in the immersivity of a film can have longer term effects on science identity, and those effects are stronger in females. Additionally, as more assessments are being designed in a gamified manner, designers/researchers should keep game-style (i.e., strategy games) and gender interactions in mind. It had not been predicted that the females would outperform the males on the STEM assessment videogame, but deduction games like the one in this study are probably capturing more than knowledge about natural selection, they may be a proxies for general intelligence or g. More research is needed on game type and gender effects during the school-age developmental span.

Vocabulary changes in adulthood: Main findings and methodological considerations.

Vocabulary scores increase until approximately age 65 years and then remain stable or decrease slightly, unlike scores on tests of other cognitive abilities that decline significantly with age. To review the findings on ageing-related changes in vocabulary, and to discuss four methodological issues: research design; test type; measurement; and vocabulary ability as a proxy for general intelligence. A discussion of cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs shows that cohort membership accounts for some but not all ageing-related changes in vocabulary, and that drop-out and test-retest effects do not alter conclusions regarding these changes. Test type affects age trends in vocabulary, and if researchers use only one test, they should choose a multiple-choice synonym test. While some authors suggest that vocabulary tests do not measure the same underlying ability in younger and older adults, more research of this suggestion is needed. A brief examination of the use of vocabulary ability as a proxy for general intelligence in healthy ageing and for premorbid abilities in dementia indicates that such practice is often questionable. Vocabulary knowledge increases through the mid-60s regardless of measurement method. However, there is little information on how word knowledge serves other verbal skills in old age, how and when adults learn new words, or how much exposure is necessary for meanings to remain in storage for a lifetime. Research of these issues may require new methodologies, as well as novel theoretical accounts of ageing-related effects on vocabulary. What is already known on this subject Unlike many cognitive abilities that decline with ageing, vocabulary knowledge continues to increase until approximately age 65, and then remains stable or decreases slightly. These findings have been replicated in different research designs and across languages. What this paper adds to existing knowledge The article presents a summary of findings on changes in vocabulary across adulthood, and a discussion of four key methodological issues: research design, test type, measurement, and the use of vocabulary ability as a proxy for general intelligence. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? To better understand changes in vocabulary knowledge across adulthood, clinicians must be aware of methodological considerations that affect the field. Such considerations have direct clinical implications regarding the choice of vocabulary tests and their use as a proxy for other abilities in both healthy older adults and in individuals with dementia.

QAVA: QoE-Aware Adaptive Video Bitrate Aggregation for HTTP Live Streaming Based on Smart Edge Computing

Currently video streaming in heterogeneous network environments is affected by limited network bandwidth availability and consequent low and variable user Quality of Experience (QoE) levels. In particular, for the case of live video streaming, a very high number of end-clients request content at the same time, generating huge concurrent traffic, and putting pressure on the existing network infrastructure. An approach which helps address this issue is deployment of emerging edge computing technologies to smooth the live streaming traffic and improve QoE by adapting client bitrates and caching content at the edge server. In this context, this paper proposes a novel <bold xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Q</b> oE-aware <bold xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">A</b> daptive <bold xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">V</b> ideo bitrate <bold xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">A</b> ggregation scheme for HTTP live streaming based on smart edge computing (QAVA). As an intelligent proxy server, a “smart edge” which deploys QAVA aggregates all the traffic requested by clients for the same live streaming service and adapts their bitrates based on network conditions, client states and video characteristics. The adaptation is performed based on a Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL)-based algorithm, which is also proposed. The QAVA DRL algorithm is trained and modeled based on a real client experience dataset. The experimental evaluation results presented in this paper show how QAVA outperforms other state-of-the-art adaptive bitrate algorithms in terms of average QoE and QoE fairness.

The Accidental Philosopher and One of the Hardest Problems in the World

Given the difficulties of defining “machine” and “think”, Turing proposed to replace the question “Can machines think?” with a proxy: how well can an agent engage in sustained conversation with a human? Though Turing neither described himself as a philosopher nor published much on philosophical matters, his Imitation Game has stood the test of time. Most understood at that time that success would not come easy, but few would have guessed just how difficult engaging in ordinary conversation would turn out to be. Despite the proliferation of language processing tools, we have seen little progress towards doing well at the Imitation Game. Had Turing instead suggested ability at games or even translation as a proxy for intelligence, his paper might have been forgotten. We argue that these and related problems are amenable to mechanical, though sophisticated, formal techniques. Turing appears to have taken care to select sustained, productive conversation and that alone as his proxy. Even simple conversation challenges a machine to engage in the rich practice of human discourse in all its generality and variety.

A Negative Relationship between IQ and Family Size in the Sultanate of Oman

Many studies have shown a small negative correlation between intelligence and fertility in developed countries. Several studies have provided evidence of a similar relationship in developing countries, notably in several Arab nations. The present study contributes to this body of research by testing whether this small negative relationship also exists in a poor region of the Sultanate of Oman, thus contributing to the important issue of understanding whether intelligence is in decline beyond the West even in poorer areas. The study used a sample of 1406 students aged 10 to 19 years from schools in the Dhofar Governorate in Oman. The correlations between children’s IQ and family size and between parents’ education and family size were computed, with parent education being a robust proxy for intelligence. This yielded a small negative relationship between children’s IQ and their family size, and a moderate-sized negative relationship between parental education and family size. It is concluded that there is a negative relationship between education and fertility in Oman and that this suggests a small negative relationship between parents’ intelligence and the number of their children. These data suggest that at the genetic level, intelligence is slowly declining in the Arab world although test scores are still rising due to educational and economic advances. Key Words: Intelligence, Fertility, Oman, Dysgenics

Fluid intelligence and its neural correlates in early onset mild cognitive impairment

AbstractBackgroundFluid intelligence refers to the ability of abstract reasoning, problem‐solving and other mental activities considered to be independent from learned knowledges and experience. It has been demonstrated that fluid intelligence is compromised in Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI), but it also declines with ageing. We tested if fluid intelligence is also affected when MCI occurs before 65 years of age (i.e., in early‐onset MCI) and studied its specific functional and structural brain correlates independently from the effect of ageing.MethodEighty‐five subjects with early‐onset MCI (cognitive symptoms onset &lt; 65 years) underwent extended neuropsychological assessment including Raven’s Coloured Progressive Matrices (RCPM), a culture‐free non‐verbal relational reasoning task that is considered a proxy of fluid intelligence. They also underwent multimodal Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) protocol on a 3T scanner including high‐resolution T1 and sequences acquired at rest for functional MRI (fMRI). Performance at RCPM was related to regional grey matter volume using Voxel Based Morphometry (VBM) and to functional connectivity of resting‐state networks (RSNs) known to be related to cognition using independent component analysis.ResultsThe median RCPM score was 27 (range 8‐36, with 36 being the maximum obtainable score). Among all 85 patients, only 11.8% (N=10) performed below the age and education‐corrected cut‐off. These patients also had significantly lower scores in almost all the remaining neuropsychological tests, suggesting that they were in a more severe stage of MCI (i.e., close to conversion). VBM results showed that, across all patients, decreased performance on RCPM was associated with focal atrophy in right fronto‐temporal and bilateral parietal areas (Figure 1). FMRI acquired at rest showed that better performance on RCPM was associated with lower functional connectivity in areas of the anterior DMN and with higher functional connectivity in areas of the left fronto‐parietal RSN (also indicated as the working memory RSN).ConclusionIn patients with early‐onset MCI fluid intelligence is relatively preserved, associated with lower atrophy in right fronto‐temporal and bilateral parietal regions, and with decreased functional connectivity in the anterior DMN and increased in the left fronto‐parietal network.

Is the Intellectual Functioning Component of AAIDD's 12th Manual Satisficing?

Is the Intellectual Functioning Component of AAIDD's 12th Manual Satisficing?

Demographic features, behavioral measures, and clinical factors as predictors of cognitive function in patients with multiple sclerosis

Background: One of the most concerning features that involves 40-70% of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) is cognitive impairment. Moreover, it affects various aspects of patients’ life. In this regard, this study was conducted to find independent predictors of cognitive function.Method: We performed a cross-sectional analysis on 92 patients chosen from MS clinic of Sina hospital, Iran. After completing a general questionnaire of demographic and various clinical features, the included participants (patients with RRMS) underwent neuropsychological assessment using Minimal Assessment of Cognitive function in Multiple Sclerosis (MACFIMS), Expanded disability Status Scale (EDSS), Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II), and National American Adult Reading Test (NAART). An un-weighted average of MACFIMS subscales z-scores was reported as cognitive index. In order to find the association between CI and different factors, each variable was entered in a simple regression model first. Then, a univariate multiple regression model was invoked to evaluate the predictors of cognitive index in patients.Results: Simple regression for cognitive index of 92 patients (86% female) with a mean age of 33.4±7.6 years old suffering of RRMS for 6.8±4.8 years revealed patients with history of former smoking (p=0.001), sole visual symptoms as the presentation sign of the study (β=-0.341, p=0.001), lower EDSS score (β=-0.299, p=0.005), higher NAART score (β=0.416, p≤0.0001), and college education (p=0.001), had better cognitive function in our study population. Such factors including age, educational status, BDI-II score, EDSS score, and disease duration were fixed and the other significant factors entered once separately and then simultaneously in the univariate multiple linear regression model. It was revealed that former smoking (β=-0.372, p≤0.0001), NAART (β=0.304, p=0.002), and EDSS (β= -0.185, P=0.045) are associated significantly with the cognitive function of patients with multiple sclerosis.Conclusion: This study demonstrated NAART, as a proxy of premorbid intelligence, history of former smoking, and EDSS score may have effects on cognitive function in MS. Future studies need to be invoked for the evaluation of the causality relation of these factors.

Brain morphology predicts social intelligence in wild cleaner fish

It is generally agreed that variation in social and/or environmental complexity yields variation in selective pressures on brain anatomy, where more complex brains should yield increased intelligence. While these insights are based on many evolutionary studies, it remains unclear how ecology impacts brain plasticity and subsequently cognitive performance within a species. Here, we show that in wild cleaner fish (Labroides dimidiatus), forebrain size of high-performing individuals tested in an ephemeral reward task covaried positively with cleaner density, while cerebellum size covaried negatively with cleaner density. This unexpected relationship may be explained if we consider that performance in this task reflects the decision rules that individuals use in nature rather than learning abilities: cleaners with relatively larger forebrains used decision-rules that appeared to be locally optimal. Thus, social competence seems to be a suitable proxy of intelligence to understand individual differences under natural conditions.

Macroevolutionary patterns and selection modes for general intelligence (G) and for commonly used neuroanatomical volume measures in primates

Various neuroanatomical volume measures (NVMs) are frequently used as proxies for intelligence in comparative studies, such as the size of the brain, neocortex, and hippocampus, either absolute or controlled for other size measures (e.g., body size, or rest of the brain). Mean species NVMs are moderately correlated with aggregate general intelligence (G), however G and NVMs are yet to be compared in their evolutionary patterns (e.g., conservatism and evolutionary rates) and processes (i.e., their fit to diverse models of evolution reflecting selection regimes). Such evolutionary information is valuable for examining convergence in the evolutionary history among traits and is not available from simple correlation coefficients. Considering accumulating evidence that non-volumetric neurological measures may be as important as (or more so than) volumetric measures as substrates of intelligence, and that certain NVMs negatively predict neuronal density, we hypothesized that discrepancies would be found in evolutionary patterns and processes of G compared to NVMs. We collated data from the literature on primate species means for G, the volumes of the brain, neocortex, cerebellum, and hippocampus, and body mass, and employed phylogenetic comparative methods that examine phylogenetic signal (λ, K), evolutionary rates (σ2), and several parameters of evolutionary models (Brownian motion, Early-burst, acceleration, and Ornstein-Uhlenbeck). Evolutionary rates and acceleration trends were up to an order of magnitude higher for G than for most NVMs, and a strong selection optimum toward which clades evolved was found for G, whereas NVMs conformed mostly to Brownian motion. Brain size was the most contrasting NVM compared to intelligence across most phylogenetic indices examined, showing signs of deceleration and extreme conservativeness. Only certain operationalizations of neocortical and hippocampal volume showed convergence with G, albeit still notably weakly. The NVM with results that most strongly approached the patterns identified for G is residual cerebellar size (relative to body size). In comparison to the most commonly used volumetric measures (operationalization of brain and neocortex size), G must be seen as an evolutionarily labile trait under considerable selection pressure, necessitating that the role of the cerebellum be more aptly recognized and that other neurological factors be invoked as potential substrates for its evolutionary trajectory.

Estimated Intelligence Moderates Cognitive Processing Therapy Outcome for Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms

Although patient intelligence may be an important determinant of the degree to which individuals may comprehend, comply with, and ultimately benefit from trauma-focused treatment, no prior studies have examined the impact of patient intelligence on benefit from psychotherapies for PTSD. We investigated the degree to which educational achievement, often used as a proxy for intelligence, and estimated full scale intelligence quotient (FSIQ) scores themselves moderated treatment outcomes for two effective psychotherapies for PTSD: Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) and Written Exposure Therapy (WET). Participants, 126 treatment-seeking adults with PTSD (52% male; mean age = 43.9, SD = 14.6), were equally randomized to CPT and WET; PTSD symptom severity was measured at baseline and 6-, 12-, 24-, 36-, and 60-weeks following the first treatment session. Multilevel models revealed that participants with higher FSIQ scores experienced significantly greater PTSD symptom reduction through the 24-week assessment in CPT but not WET; this effect did not persist through the 60-week assessment. Educational achievement did not moderate symptom change through either 24- or 60-weeks. Individuals with higher FSIQ who are treated with CPT may experience greater symptom improvement in the early stages of recovery.

Precision (Mis)Education

AbstractIn August of 2018, the results of the largest genomic investigation in human history were published. Scanning the DNA of over one million participants, a genome‐wide association study was conducted to identify genetic variants associated with the number of years of education a person has completed. This measure, called “educational attainment,” is often treated as a proxy for intelligence and cognitive ability. The study raises a host of hard philosophical questions about study design and strength of evidence. It also sets the basis for something far more controversial. Using a new genomic method that generates “polygenic scores,” researchers are now able to use the results of the study to predict a person's educational potential from a blood or saliva sample. Going a step further, some researchers have begun to promote “precision education,” which would tailor students’ school plans to their genetic profiles. The idea of precision education provokes concerns about stigma and self‐fulfilling prophecies.

Facing the full model selection problem in high volume datasets employing intelligent proxy models

Facing the full model selection problem in high volume datasets employing intelligent proxy models

Not Just IQ: Patterning Predicts Preschoolers’ Math Knowledge Beyond Fluid Reasoning

ABSTRACTPreschoolers’ patterning skills are predictive of their concurrent and later math knowledge; however, it is unclear if patterning is only a proxy for general intelligence, or how it might support specific math skills. The current study examined the relation between 66 preschool children’s patterning skills and their general cognitive abilities, including fluid reasoning, working memory, and spatial skill. Further, the link between patterning and general math knowledge and specific math skills (i.e., numeracy and shape knowledge) was examined. Children’s patterning skills were significantly but only moderately linked to their performance on general cognitive ability measures (e.g., fluid reasoning). Further, beyond the effects of these general cognitive abilities, patterning significantly predicted both general math and numeracy knowledge, as well as verbal calculation and magnitude comparison. Thus, although patterning skills related to measures of general cognitive ability, patterning was a unique contributor to children’s general math and numeracy knowledge and specific math skills. Theories of math development and early math standards should thus be modified to emphasize the role of children’s patterning skills to their math development.

19 - INVESTIGATING CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER AND GENETICALLY CORRELATED TRAITS USING MENDELIAN RANDOMISATION

Background Major Depressive Disorder is a common, complex, heterogeneous disorder that has been found to be associated with a wide array of traits and diseases such as coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes and cancer. Due to the limitations of observational studies, it is not possible to establish whether such associations are causal, due to reverse causality or due to confounding. Mendelian Randomisation (MR) is an analytical technique that uses genetic instruments that are associated with the exposure of interest, to evaluate whether the association between exposure and outcome is causal in observational data. We sought to investigate the causal relationship between MDD and traits showing phenotypic and genetic correlation. Methods We used a novel multi-SNP MR method called Generalised Summary-based Mendelian Randomisation (GSMR) to investigate direction of causality between MDD and 4 traits with high genetic correlation with MDD – years of education (at the genetic level this is a proxy for general intelligence together with other psychosocial factors), body mass index (BMI), schizophrenia and coronary artery disease, for which GWAS summary statistics are publically available. Bi-directional analysis was performed. Sample sizes for risk factors ranged from 150,064 to 405,072, and the number of genome-wide significant SNPs included as independent instruments ranged from 59 to 124. A primary assumption of the MR method is that the genetic instrument does not have pleiotropic effects on the exposure and outcome. The GSMR method filters out SNPs with significant evidence of pleiotropy. Results GSMR analyses provided evidence for a 1.15 fold increase in MDD per standard deviation of BMI (P =2.7×10-7) and a 0.89 fold decrease in MDD per standard deviation of years of education (P=8.8×10-7). There was no evidence of reverse causality of MDD for BMI (P=0.81) or EDY (P =0.28). For BMI there was some evidence of pleiotropy, as eight SNPs were excluded as outliers. For CAD, the MR analyses were not significant when considering MDD as an outcome (P =0.39) or as an exposure (P = 0.13). There was significant evidence of bidirectional causality with a correlation in effect sizes of schizophrenia SNPs in MDD (P = 7.7×10–46) and MDD SNPs in schizophrenia (P = 6.3 × 10–15). Results from other MR methods such as inverse-weighted meta-analysis, weighted median and MR-Egger were similar to those from GSMR Discussion Our results suggest that MDD is not a causal risk factor for decreased years of education and increased BMI. In contrast, our results suggest that decreased years of education and increased BMI could be investigated as causal risk factors for MDD recognising that an alternative explanation is that these factors are correlated with other risk factors for MDD. Evidence from randomised control trials that have shown improved mood in depressed patients who adhere to a weight-loss plan is consistent with our results. Direction of causality could not be established for the association between MDD and CAD, indicating that the association may be due to other confounding factors. Lastly, our results suggest that MDD and schizophrenia have overlapping causal genetic pathways.