Provisional Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake Research Articles

Occurrence and exposure assessment of fumonisins from grains and grain products in Zhejiang Province in 2018-2019

To monitor fumonisins(FBs) in grains and grain products in Zhejiang and assess the exposure risks of FBs to local residents. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry method was used to determine the occurrence of FBs in rice, millet, dried noodles, instant noodles, and maize grains, and food frequency questionnaires were used to collect the food consumption data of Zhejiang population. Then, the simple probability distribution model was used to assess the exposure risk. The levels of FBs in rice, millet, dried noodles and instant noodles were relatively low. The occurrence of FB_1, FB_2 and FB_3 in these foods was 0-23.7%, 0-16.7% and 0-5.4%, respectively, and the mean levels were not detected(ND)-22.36, ND-20.63 and ND-7.19 μg/kg correspondingly. However, the levels of FBs in maize grains were relatively high. The occurrence of FB_1, FB_2, and FB_3 in maize grains was 100%, 93.6% and 90.3%, respectively, and the mean levels were 638.99, 103.54 and 59.69 μg/kg correspondingly. In 12.9% of the maize grain samples, the levels of FBs were higher than the standard reference. The residents were at low exposure risk overall. The mean estimated daily intake(EDI) of FBs was far lower than the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 2 μg/(kg·BW·d). However, 0.30% of the residents were at high risk. Among people of different ages, the mean EDI of children, adults, and elderly were 0.43, 0.28 and 0.29 μg/(kg·BW·d) respectively, and children were in the highest exposure levels of FBs. Among the tested five foodstuffs, rice and maize grains were the main sources of FBs exposure. Except for maize grains, the levels of FBs in grains and grain products were relatively low, and Zhejiang residents were at low FBs exposure risk generally.

B-Type Fumonisins in Post-Fermented Tea: Occurrence and Consumer Dietary Exposure in Guangxi, China.

Post-fermented tea (PFT), a commonly consumed beverage worldwide, is characterized by the rapid growth of its microbial groups and the substantial changes they undergo. Consequently, PFT may contain mycotoxins such as B-type fumonisins (FBs). This study aimed to assess the intake of FBs through the consumption of PFT among consumers in Guangxi, China. A novel quantitative method using high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to determine the FB concentration in PFT products. Additionally, a PFT consumption survey was conducted using a face-to-face questionnaire, recording their body weight and PFT consumption patterns based on a three-day dietary recall method. Finally, hazard index was calculated to estimate the health risk of FBs from the consumption of PFT products in Guangxi. The results revealed that the occurrence of FBs in PFT was 20% (24/120), with a concentration ranging from 2.14 to 18.28 μg/kg. The results of the survey showed that the average daily consumption of PFT by consumers was 9.19 ± 11.14 g. The deterministic risk assessment revealed that only 0.026% of the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of FBs was consumed through PFT, indicating that FB contamination in PFT is not a public health risk.

Adverse associations between maternal deoxynivalenol exposure and birth outcomes: a prospective cohort study in China

BackgroundDeoxynivalenol (DON), one of the most prevalent mycotoxins, has been found to cause fetal growth retardation in animals. However, limited evidence exists regarding its effects on pregnant women.MethodsMaternal urinary concentration of total DON (tDON) and free DON (fDON) in the second trimester was measured using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. Provisional daily intake (PDI) of DON was calculated based on tDON concentration. Linear and logistic regression models were used to evaluate the association between DON exposure levels and birth weight, birth length, and the risk of small for gestational age (SGA).ResultsAmong 1538 subjects, the median concentrations of tDON and fDON were 12.1 ng/mL and 5.1 ng/mL, respectively. The PDI values revealed that the median DON intake was 0.7 µg/kg bw, and 35.9% of the total population exceeded the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 1 µg/kg bw. Compared with the lowest tertile, birth weight decreased by 81.11 g (95% CI: -127.00, -35.23) for tDON (P-trend < 0.001) and 63.02 g (95% CI: -108.72, -17.32) for fDON (P-trend = 0.004) in the highest tertile. Each unit increase in Ln-tDON and Ln-fDON was also inversely associated with birth weight. Furthermore, compared to those who did not exceed PMTDI, pregnant women whose PDI exceeded PMTDI had lower birth weight (β = -79.79 g; 95% CI: -119.09, -40.49) and birth length (β = -0.21 cm; 95% CI: -0.34, -0.07), and a higher risk of SGA (OR = 1.48; 95% CI: 1.02, 2.15) in their offspring. Similar associations with birth weight, birth length, and SGA were found when comparing the highest tertile of PDI to the lowest tertile (all P-trend < 0.05).ConclusionsMaternal DON exposure is related to decreased birth weight. Our findings implicate that DON exposure during pregnancy may cause fetal growth faltering, and measures should be taken to reduce DON exposure in pregnant women.

Risk assessment of 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters from the formulas for infants and young children up to 36 months of age

Esters of 2-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (2-MCPD), 3- monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD), and glycidol are present in infant formulas, follow-on foods and similar compositions. They arise mainly from the vegetable oil content and may cause harmful effects in consumers. The contents of these substances in formulas were determined indirectly by converting the esters to the free form, followed by derivatization and analysis by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). The validation results demonstrate that the method had sufficient specificity and adequate accuracy. The limits of detection (LOD) and limits of quantification (LOQ) for each of 2­MCPDE, 3­MCPDE, and GE were 1.5 and 5 µg/kg, respectively. Formula intake by children up to 36 months of age was surveyed, and the data was used to assess the risks due to 3-MCPD esters (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl esters (GE). The mean exposure dose of 3-MCPDE for different age groups ranged from 0.51 to 1.13 µg/kg bw per day. The corresponding mean GE exposure ranged from 0.031 to 0.069 µg/kg bw per day. Neither mean values nor the percentile 95% values of 3-MCPDE exposure doses exceed the recommended provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI).

Quantitative assessment of aflatoxin exposure and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) risk associated with consumption of select Nigerian staple foods

Aflatoxin contamination of staple grains and legumes has been linked to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and other adverse health outcomes, constituting a substantial public health concern globally. Low-resource food environments in sub-Saharan Africa are often under-regulated and are particularly vulnerable to adverse health and nutrition outcomes associated with aflatoxin exposure. This study identifies levels of HCC risk in the northern Nigerian adult population, leveraging a systematic review of available evidence on aflatoxin contamination in Nigerian maize, groundnut, rice, cowpea, and soybean. Estimated dietary intake (EDI) was computed using publicly available dietary consumption data and a probabilistic quantitative risk assessment was conducted to determine the relative risk of HCC associated with consumption of selected aflatoxin-contaminated commodities. In total, 41 eligible studies reporting aflatoxin contamination were used to model the distribution of aflatoxin concentrations in Nigerian commodities. EDIs for maize, groundnut, rice, and cowpea exceeded the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) level of 1 kgbw-1 day-1, with maize yielding the highest mean EDI (36.7 kgbw-1 day-1). The quantitative risk assessment estimated that 1.77, 0.44, 0.43, 0.15, and 0.01 HCC cases per year/100,000 population were attributable to aflatoxin exposure through maize, groundnut, rice, cowpea, and soybean, respectively. Sensitivity analysis revealed that aflatoxin concentration, dietary consumption levels, consumption frequency, and other variables have differing relative contributions to HCC risk across commodities. These findings constitute a novel multi-study risk assessment approach in the Nigerian context and substantiate existing evidence suggesting that there is reason for public health concern regarding aflatoxin exposure in the Nigerian population.

Levels of Toxic and Essential Elements in Medicinal Herbs Commercialized in Argentina

The consumption of medicinal herbs, in the form of infusions, such as chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), mint (Mentha piperita) and muña-muña (Clinopodium gilliesii) is widespread in the region. The determination of toxic and essential elements is relevant to evaluate their incorporation into the human organism. Although the study of elemental levels in different herbs and their infusions is quite widespread, information on plants from Argentina is scarce. In the present work, Cd, Pb, As, Fe, Cu, Ca, Mg, Na and K were quantified in the five commercially available medicinal herbs and in their infusions by atomic absorption and emission spectrometry. In general, the nutrient levels obtained in the herbs studied followed the sequence: K &gt; Ca &gt; Mg &gt; Fe &gt; Na &gt; Cu while in the infusions the order was: K &gt; Mg &gt; Na &gt; Ca &gt; Fe &gt; Cu. Pb was found in the chamomile and wormwood infusions at levels below 10 µg.L-1, whereas Cd and As were not detected (LOD= 0.07 μg.L-1 and 7 μg.L-1 respectively). The estimated daily intake (EDI) values calculated for the essential elements in the infusions were lower than the recommended daily intake (RDI) levels suggested by the World Health Organization (WHO) and did not provide the diet with significant nutritional values. As for to the toxic elements Pb, Cd and As, the EDI values obtained in the infusions were below the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI), indicating that they do not entail a health risk.

Risk assessment of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters through dietary exposure from edible oils for the Zhejiang population in China by Monte Carlo simulation

The purpose of this study was to assess the risk of 3-monochoropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters from edible oils for the Zhejiang population in China. Exposure assessment of 3-MCPD esters was evaluated by Monte Carlo simulation based on the concentrations of 3-MCPD esters in edible oils combined with survey data on the eating habits of Chinese residents classified by age group and gender. The simulation results indicated that the mean daily intakes (CDI) of 3-MCPD esters for children 7–10 years old were 2.154 µg (kg BW d)−1 for boys and 2.049 µg (kg BW d)−1 for girls, which are lower than the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 4 µg (kg BW d)−1 for 3-MCPD and 3-MCPD esters individually or in combination, set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. The range of mean dietary intakes of 3-MCPD esters in different subpopulation groups ranged 1.242–1.672 µg (kg BW d)−1, which was lower than the PMTDI. However, the CDI values of 3-MCPD esters in high percentile exposure subgroups (95th, 99th) of males (7–49 years old) and females (7–10 and 50–75 years old) were all above 4µg (kg bw d)−1. Outside of the senior group (50–75 years old), males had more exposure to 3-MCPD than females. The average hazard indexes (HI) of 3-MCPD esters to male and female children were 1.257 and 1.024, respectively, indicating there was a risk, but no immediate measures are required to address this risk. The average HI of 3-MCPD esters to adolescent, adult, and seniors were all below 1, indicating risk for those age groups were at an acceptable level.

Toxic Metals and Metalloids in Hassawi Brown Rice: Fate during Cooking and Associated Health Risks.

Rice has been a dietary staple for centuries, providing vital nutrients to the human body. Brown rice is well known for its nutrient-dense food profile. However, owing to multiple causes (anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic), it can also be a potential source of toxic heavy metals in the diet. Brown Hassawi rice samples were collected from the Al-Ahsa region and analyzed for its content of toxic metals. The results reveal that all the tested metals varied significantly in the brown rice samples, while As and Pb in all three samples exceeded their respective maximum allowable limits (MALs), followed by Cd, which nearly approached the MAL in two samples out of three. Brown rice samples were cooked in rice:water systems, viz., low rice:water ratios (1:2.5, 1:3.5) and high rice:water ratios (1:5, 1:6), along with soaking as a pre-treatment. Soaking was unproductive in removing the heavy metals from the rice, whereas cooking dissipated all metals from the rice, except for Cd, which was statistically non-significant. The high-water cooking of the rice was more effective in the dissipation of metals from the rice as compared to low-water cooking conditions. Through the consumption of rice, the estimated daily intake (EDI) of heavy metals is 162 g per person per day for As, which is above the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) regardless of cooking circumstances. The hazard risk index (HRI) also highlighted the fact that As can be a potential health hazard to rice consumers in the Al-Ahsa region of Saudi Arabia. These results indicate the potential health risks caused by the consumption of this rice by humans. Regular monitoring is recommended to manage and control elevated concentrations and related health hazards as a result of the use of Hassawi rice contaminated by the accumulation of metals and metalloids.

Occurrence and Exposure Assessment of Deoxynivalenol and Its Acetylated Derivatives from Grains and Grain Products in Zhejiang Province, China (2017-2020).

Deoxynivalenol (DON) together with its acetylated derivatives cause detrimental effects on human health, and the purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence of DON and its acetylated derivatives from grains and grain products in Zhejiang province, China, and to assess the risk of DON and its acetylated derivatives due to multiple consumptions of grains and grain products among the Zhejiang population. Food samples numbering 713 were collected, and the LC-MS/MS method was used to determine the toxins. The levels of toxins from grains and grain products were relatively low: DON was the toxin at the highest levels. The food frequency questionnaire was used to collect food consumption data. The result of exposure assessments showed that the population was overall at low levels of toxin exposure. The probable mean group daily intake of toxins was 0.21 μg/kg bw/day, which was far from the group provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 1 μg/kg bw/day, but 0.71% of participants were at high exposure levels. Rice and dried noodles (wheat-based food) were the main sources of toxin exposure, and reducing the consumption of rice and dried noodles while consuming more of other foods with lower levels of toxins is recommended.

Risk Profiling of Aflatoxin in Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) to the Filipino Consuming Population

Aflatoxin (AFL) is a naturally occurring mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus spp. and is commonly associated with peanuts (Arachis hypogaea L.), a major field legume in the Philippines. The major types of AFL are B1, B2, G1, and G2 – comprising the total aflatoxin (AFT). AFL exposure has been shown to cause both chronic and acute toxicity, with the liver as the main target organ. It is considered genotoxic and carcinogenic. The objective of this study is to establish the profile of the potential risks associated with the consumption of peanuts contaminated with aflatoxin to the Filipino consuming population. The study included [1] determination of data gaps in the risk profiling of AFL in the consumption of peanuts by the Filipino peanut-consuming population; [2] hazard identification and characterization; [3] estimation of dietary exposure (DE) and risk- based on uncertainties, variabilities, and assumptions; and [4] consolidation of available control measures and possible mitigation protocols for AFL in peanut. AFL was detected in 92% of all the peanut samples (n = 50) analyzed, with overall mean levels of 802.83 μg/kg AFT, 683.53 μg/kg AFB1, and 119.30 μg/kg AFB2 exceeding the maximum level (ML) of 15 μg/kg set by the Codex Alimentarius Commission for AFT. Considering the assumptions made and data gathered in this study, the estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of the Filipino adult (20–59 yr old) consuming population to AFT and to AFB1 in peanut – at 97.5th percentile consumption – were 1.22–6,527.18 ng/kg body weight (bw)/d and 1.22–5,574.90 ng/kg bw/d, respectively, which exceeded the recommended provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 1 ng/kg bw/d. The margins of exposure (MOE) were also generally estimated to be below 10,000, which indicates that it is a potential health concern and that it supports the need for further risk management actions.

Tin Concentrations and Human Health Risk Assessment for Children and Adults in Seafood and Canned Fish commonly consumed in Bayelsa State, Nigeria

Tin is a naturally occurring element in the environment, and the most important dietary intake is from tin-plates steel cans used for food packaging. The objective of this paper is to evaluate the tin concentrations and human health risk assessment of children and adults in seafood and canned fish (Sardine and Mackerel) obtained from Bayelsa State, Nigeria using the Thermo-Elemental Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (S4-71096 model) after mixed-acid digestion. Data obtained reveal tin concentrations (mean ± SD, mg/kg) in seafood in the order of fresh water fish (0.99 ± 0.07) salt water fish (0.98 ± 0.16) salt water–Blood Clam (0.75 0.022) fresh water- Clam (0.17 ± 0.12) fresh water-Prawn (0.06 ± 0.01) salt water shrimp (0.02 ± 0.01) respectively, tin concentrations in the brands of canned fish were significantly higher than the concentration in seafood (p &lt; 0.05). However, the mean concentrations of tin in the seafood and brands of canned fish were lower than the standard guideline limits set by regulatory bodies (200 mg/kg - 250 mg/kg). The health risk exposure assessment revealed that the values of all the samples were lower than the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of tin. The target hazard quotient (THQ) values of tin for both children and adults in all the samples were also lower than the reference dose (RfD). The health risk index (HRI) values of the seafood and the brands of canned fish for both children and adults were less than 1.0, which indicates that there are no adverse effects at the moment. However, the HRI values of the brands of canned fish were higher than the seafood for children and adults. Hence, assessment of tin in seafood and canned food could be periodically assessed by Nigerian food and drug regulatory organizations for efficient policy regulations.

Exposure assessment of urinary deoxynivalenol in pregnant women in Wuhan, China

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a ubiquitous trichothecene mycotoxin in food. DON and its modified forms can cross the placental barrier and influence the foetus’ health. Limited information is available on exposure of dietary DON intake of pregnant women in China recently. We estimated the exposure of dietary DON intake of pregnant women in a large sample size (n = 2534) from China. The total DON (tDON) and free DON (fDON) biomarkers in urine were detected by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. The mean concentration of tDON was 34.8 ng/mg creatinine, and the fDON was 15.9 ng/mg creatinine. The estimated exposure of dietary DON intake was 0.96–1.91 μg/kg bw/day, and the difference in exposure of DON between the first and second trimesters was statistically insignificant. Approximately 26%–60% of individuals exceeded the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI). The age, pre-pregnancy BMI, and the sampling seasons may be the risk factor for the occurrence of exceeding PMTDI. This survey is the first exposure biomarker for DON in a large sample size from pregnant women in China. We found that the dietary DON exposure in pregnant women was relatively high and particular concern should be paid to the DON exposure during pregnancy.

Assessment of the patulin contamination level in selected apple-based products available in retail in Poland

The aim of this study was to assess the level of patulin (PAT) contamination in selected apple-based products, including food intended for infants and young children, available in retail in Poland in 2016–2020. The products examined were selected due to their availability on the market and all of them derived from conventional production. All products examined contained only apples in their composition, with no other fruit added. The obtained results were related to the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of PAT established by the Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) (WHO 1995). In addition, in selected age groups, exposure assessment resulting from the intake of this toxin in the diet, was estimated. Only 2 of the 47 examined apple products contained PAT. The determined levels of contamination were significantly lower than a maximum acceptable level specified in the provisions of the food law at the level of 50.0 μg kg-1 for apple juice. When considering the value of the average daily consumption of apple juice in Poland, the PAT daily intake from apple juice did not exceed the tolerable daily intake in any of the examined samples and amounted to a maximum of 1.6% of PMTDI. As for one portion recommended for consumption, the result obtained was also below tolerable daily intake and constituted a maximum of 38.7% of PMTDI. These findings are a particularly valuable source of information for farmers, traders and consumers, and confirm health safety of apple juice and apple-based products intended for infants and young children.

Toxic Effects of Mycotoxin Fumonisin B1 at Six Different Doses on Female BALB/c Mice.

Background: Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is one of the most common mycotoxins contaminating feed and food. Although regulatory limits about fumonisins have been established in some countries, it is still very important to conduct research on lower doses of FB1 to determine the tolerance limits. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different concentrations of FB1, provide further evidence about the toxic doses- and exposure time-associated influence of FB1 on mice, especially low levels of FB1 for long-term exposure. Methods: Female BALB/c mice were treated intragastrically (i.g.) with fumonisin B1 (FB1) solutions (0 mg/kg body weight (BW), 0.018 mg/kg BW, 0.054 mg/kg BW, 0.162 mg/kg BW, 0.486 mg/kg BW, 1.458 mg/kg BW and 4.374 mg/kg BW) once a day for 8 weeks to obtain dose- and time-dependent effects on body and organ weights, hematology, blood chemical parameters and liver and kidney histopathology. Results: After the long-term administration of FB1, the body weights of the mice tended to decrease. Over time, FB1 first increased the relative spleen weight, then increased the relative kidney weight, and finally increased the relative liver weight. The mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), hemoglobin (HGB), white blood cells (WBC), platelets (PLT), and mean platelet volume (MPV) were significantly elevated after treatment with FB1 for 8 weeks. Moreover, exposure time-dependent responses were found for aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) level, which were coupled with hepatic histopathological findings, necroinflammation and vacuolar degeneration and detrital necrosis. Linear dose response was also found for liver histopathology, in which, even the minimum dose of FB1 exposure also caused changes. Renal alterations were moderate compared to hepatic alterations. Conclusion: In conclusion, we demonstrated the systemic toxic effects of different doses of FB1 in female BALB/c mice at different times. Our data indicated that the effects observed in this study at the lowest dose tested are discussed in relation to the currently established provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) for fumonisins. This study suggested that recommendations for the concentration of FB1 in animals and humans are not sufficiently protective and that regulatory doses should be modified to better protect animal and human health. The toxicity of FB1 needs more attention.

Level of contamination with deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and fumonisins in cereal products - assessment of consumer exposure.

The main aim of this study was to determine the content of mycotoxins, such as: deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA) and fumonisins (FUM) in cereal products, and such products intended for infants. The secondary objective was to assess consumer exposure to the DON, ZEA and FUM occurring in cereal products, including those intended for infants and young children. The study included cereals and cereal products such as flours, grits, pastas, products of the bakery industry, snacks and cereal products intended for infants and young children, available in retail outlets in the Małopolska Province of Poland. DON content was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography with a DAD detector, while the contents of ZEA and FUM were detected by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. The determined concentration of mycotoxins exceeded the maximum level specified in food law in only two cases. DON level in maize flour was 1511.0 μg kg-1 and exceeded the maximal residue level (MRL) set at 750.0 μg kg-1. The value of MRL for ZEA was over the permissible value of 75.0 μg kg-1 in the maize flour sample only, and was 212.0 μg kg-1. None of the samples examined was beyond the permissible level of FUM. Levels higher than those permissible for the examined cereal products were noted in only two cases. FUMs were the most commonly found Fusarium mycotoxins, followed by DON and ZEA. The mean exposure doses of the assessed mycotoxins, resulting from the consumption of cereal products in the selected populations, were at low levels (reaching a maximum of 6.81%) and did not exceed the tolerable daily intake (TDI) or provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI). Therefore, the observed average chronic exposure dose not pose a health risk to consumers.

Dietary exposure to fumonisins and ochratoxins in the Chinese general population during 2007–2020: Results from three consecutive total diet studies

As widespread contaminants, fumonisins (FBs) and ochratoxins (OTs) in food may cause public health threat. In this study, the dietary exposures to FBs and OTs in the Chinese general population were investigated by means of a total diet study (TDS) approach. A total of 672 composite dietary samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in three consecutive China total diet studies from 2007 to 2020. Combining with the national consumption data, estimated dietary exposure to FBs and OTs were assessed and compared with health-based guidance values (HBGVs). The estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of FBs were 55–237 ng/kg bw/day at the upper bound accounting 2.77%–17.4% of provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI). Cereals were the greatest contributor to fumonisin exposure. For ochratoxin A (OTA), the EDIs were 0.65–5.72 ng/kg bw/day at the upper bound accounting 4.67%–40.8% of provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI). Although the estimated exposures were well below their respective HBGVs in general, they were found to exceed HBGVs in sporadic regions. Moreover, there was a remarkable increase in the dietary exposure to fumonisin B3 (FB3) and ochratoxin B (OTB) over the last decade that is worth further attention.

Risk Profiling of Fumonisin in Corn (Zea mays L.) to the Filipino Consuming Population

The Fusarium fungus is known to produce fumonisin, a naturally occurring mycotoxin associated with chronic adverse health effects in animal liver and kidney, which is commonly found in corn (Zea mays L.), one of the major agricultural crops and staple foods in the Philippines. The objective of this study was to develop a profile of the potential risks associated with the consumption of corn contaminated with fumonisins B1 (FB1) and B2 (FB2). This study involved the determination of data gaps in the risk profiling process; identification, and characterization of fumonisin; estimation of the dietary exposure (DE) and risk based on identified uncertainties, variabilities, and assumptions; and determination of available risk management options for fumonisin in corn. Fumonisin levels of corn samples (n = 77) were all below the 4000 μg/kg maximum level (ML) set in the 2019 edition of the Codex General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Foods (Codex GSCTFF) for raw corn grains. At the 97.5th percentile consumption of corn [yellow, white, green (or sweet) corn; edible portions (corn kernels)], the calculated DE estimates of the Filipino adult (20–59 yr old) exceeded the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 2 μg/kg bw (body weight)/d by 420.17% (maximum FB1), 194.30% (maximum FB2), and 189.81% (overall FB1 mean). Considering the assumptions made and the gathered data in this study, the estimated DE to fumonisin in corn showed an appreciable risk to health. The current ML of fumonisin in corn and corn products adopted from Codex GSCTFF may be in need to be revisited to ensure the protection of the adult Filipino consuming population.

Occurrence and Risk Assessment of Dietary Exposure to Deoxynivalenol in Wheat-Based Products Based Different Wheat-Producing Area for the Inhabitants in Shanghai, China.

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the major mycotoxins that contaminate cereals. In this study, we determined the DON level in wheat-based products from Chinese five main production areas collected in Shanghai and calculated the daily intake of DON for inhabitants using the point evaluation and the probabilistic evaluation based on Monte Carlo simulation. The results showed the positive rates of DON in the products were higher than 80.0%, with the concentrations ranging from 41.8 to 1110 µg/kg. The estimated mean daily intakes of DON for 7- to 10-year-old children and adults groups were below 1 µg/kg bw/day, the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), suggesting no health risks for the consumers. However, the 99th percentiles of dietary DON exposures for children and adults exceeded the PMTDI, indicating adverse health effects might occur if the two groups intake highly contaminated wheat-based products. The potential health risks for the two groups exposed to DON in the wheat-based products from the Middle and Lower Yangtze Valley (MLYV) were higher than those from the other areas in China.

Risk Profiling of 3-MCPD (3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol) in Soy Sauce to the Adult Filipino Consuming Population

Soy sauce is one of the commonly consumed food items in the Philippines because of its vast applications as a regular sauce and a condiment in various food dishes. One method used to produce soy sauce is chemical hydrolysis that involves acid hydrolysis of vegetable protein under high temperatures, which may generate a chemical by-product called 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD). Exposure to 3-MCPD may potentially cause adverse health effects to humans such as kidney, liver, and reproductive organ failure, as well as infertility and carcinogenicity. Thus, this study aimed to establish a profile on the potential risk associated with the consumption of soy sauce with 3-MCPD in the Philippines. This study included risk profile conceptualization, literature review, and identification of uncertainties and variabilities to formulate assumptions, which were then used in the dietary exposure (DE) assessment and estimation of risk of the adult Filipino consuming population to 3-MCPD in soy sauce. Analysis showed that the soy sauce samples (n = 19) collected from identified supermarkets and wet markets in the Philippines contained 3-MCPD levels below the maximum level (ML) of 0.4 mg/kg set by the 2019 edition of the Codex General Standards for Contaminants and Toxins in Food and Feed. With these generated data on the hazard levels, the high consumer (97.5th) percentile soy sauce consumption data from the Philippine Department of Science and Technology–Food and Nutrition Research Institute (DOST-FNRI), and the assumed body weight of an adult Asian, the DE of the adult Filipino consuming population to 3-MCPD in soy sauce was estimated to be 0.0327–0.1636 µg/kg body weight (bw)/d, which was lower than 4 µg/kg bw – the latest provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) in 2016. Based on these findings, the consumption of soy sauce showed no appreciable risk to the health of the Filipino consuming population.

The contamination and estimation of dietary intake for perchlorate and chlorate in infant formulas in China

ABSTRACT The contents of perchlorate and chlorate were determined in a total of 278 samples of infant formulas marketed in China. The associated health risk via infant and young child formulas consumption for 0–36 month old children in China was also assessed. The contents of perchlorate and chlorate were measured by a validated method with LC-MS and the limit of detection (LOD) was 1.5 μg kg−1 and 3.0 μg kg−1 for perchlorate and chlorate, respectively. Perchlorate and chlorate were detected in about 85.8% (median 6.92 μg kg−1, maximum 74.20 μg kg−1) and 99.3% (median 52.80 μg kg−1, maximum 2780 μg/kg) of the samples. The exposures of infant and young children to perchlorate from formulas were lower than the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI, 0.7 μg/kg bw/day), which was established by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in 2015 also proposed a tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 3 μg/kg bw/day for chlorate based on the mean and average concentrations. Only for infants 0–6 month at the 95th percentile did exposures exceed the TDI of 3 μg/day for chlorate. Therefore, the safety of infant and young child formulas is excellent. To our knowledge, this is the first report to assess the exposure of infant and young child formulas in China to perchlorate and chlorate.