Provision Of Other Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Role of sacred groves in southwestern Nigeria in biodiversity conservation, biomass and carbon storage.

Sacred groves are remnants of primary forests with rich biological diversity, protected by indigenous communities. Their role in carbon sequestration and provision of other ecosystem services is being recognized. We investigated four sacred groves (Idanre Hills, Igbo-Olodumare, Ogun-Onire, and Osun-Osogbo) in southwestern Nigeria for biodiversity conservation, biomass production, and carbon storage. A total of 32 temporary sample plots of 800 m2 each were laid across all the sacred groves. Within each plot, all trees with dbh greater or equal to 10cm were identified, and their diameters and heights measured. Saplings and seedlings were assessed within 100m2 and 25m2 sub-plots, respectively. Non-destructive methods were employed in estimating volume, biomass production, and carbon storage. Shannon-Wiener diversity index, Margalef index, and tree species richness in the four groves ranged from 2.63-3.55, 5.64-10.02, and 41-85, respectively, and differed significantly. The four groves were sanctuaries for many indigenous tree species of immense social, religious, ecological, and socio-economic importance. The high densities ofseedling and sapling, together with the inverted-J tree diameter distributions, are indications of active regeneration and healthy ecosystem. Mean volume was high (range 244.99 to 343.08 m3ha-1). The biomass (range 87.8 to 231.85 t ha-1) and carbon stock (range 43.9 to 115.9 t ha-1) of the groves revealed their potentials for climate change mitigation through atmospheric CO2 sequestration. Thus, besides being an effective biodiversity conservation method, sacred groves are important carbon sink. This calls for further conservation of sacred groves to serve as long-term carbon storagemechanism.

Defining hotspots and coldspots of regulating and maintenance ecosystem services is key to effective marine management – An assessment of a coastal-open sea gradient, Portugal

Coastal and marine ecosystems provide valuable ecosystem services (ES) from which humans derive societal goods and benefits (SG&B) after inputting human capital. Their assessment and integration into management plans are crucial to maintain ecosystem productivity and ensure robust and resilient ecosystems. However, regulating and maintenance ecosystem services (RMES) are usually not given focused attention in ecosystem services assessments, despite their importance in supporting the ecological foundations of ecosystems and the provision of other ES. This research used regional to local indicators and spatial analysis to assess the provision of RMES along a coastal-open sea gradient in the northern coast of Portugal, as a tool to define priority areas for ecosystem-based and protected area management. Nine classes of RMES were identified and eleven indicators were used as proxies to assess and evaluate the continuum coast-sea multifunctionality, ES/SG&B bundles and hotspots and coldspots of ES supply. The study showed that 20% of the study area was classified as hotspots of RMES provision, i.e. areas with statistically significant higher values of RMES provision within the management area, and 28% classified as coldspots, i.e. areas with minimal values. The hotspots were mainly distributed along coastal areas and estuaries, with three main marine regions identified. While in general 39% of the areas identified as important for RMES provision were already protected, in the marine region only 30% of the key areas for RMES provision identified in this study are currently protected. The methods used in this work, using locally based and spatially explicit information on RMES provision, are applicable to other areas globally, as they are fundamental in supporting more effective management decisions at spatial scales from local to the wider regions.

Flowers of ruderal species are numerous but small, short and low‐rewarding

Weed species are ecological models that recently received considerable attention due to their particular strategies linked to their ruderal‐competitive traits. They are known to have the potential to provide additional floral resources for insects in flower‐poor agroecosystems. However, their floral traits are much more scarcely studied than those of plants found in other habitats, such as grasslands. The aim of this study was to describe the floral phenotype of weeds and to determine to what extent their floral traits match their ecological strategies as described based on leaf traits. We cultivated 19 forb weeds from perennial agroecosystems, previously identified in Mediterranean fields, in a greenhouse for seven months and collected data on 12 floral and five leaf traits. We tested whether these traits covaried and exhibited an ecological strategy at the phenotype scale. We found that in matters of flower production, weed species face a tradeoff: either numerous small, low‐stature flowers with small quantities of pollen and nectar, or few, large, higher‐held flowers with more pollen and nectar. The floral traits were found to reflect Grime's CSR strategies: the weed species producing fewer but costlier flowers belonged to C‐strategy species, whereas those producing more but less costly flowers belonged to species dominated by an R strategy. These findings indicate that the potential of weeds as floral resources for insects is related to their ecological strategies, which are known to be affected by agricultural practices that filter species composition. This implies that, as for the provision of other ecosystem services, weed communities can be managed to select species with floral traits matching the requirements of flower‐visiting insects like pollinators or parasitoid wasps.

Applicability of soil health assessment for wheat-maize cropping systems in smallholders’ farmlands

Soil health assessment is fundamental to guiding sustainable soil management practices, ensuring healthy soil, crop productivity, and provision of other ecosystem services. Interpretation of soil health in intensive agriculture in the North China Plain (NCP) is still lacking due to an over emphasis on soil chemical management and large variations among smallholders’ farmlands. The objectives of this study were to (i) compare soil health assessment approaches in response to fertilization regimes, (ii) quantify relationships between soil health and agronomic outcomes, (iii) develop a minimum data set to simplify soil health assessment, and (iv) validate soil health assessment frameworks in smallholders’ fields on the NCP. We collected soil samples from eight wheat-maize rotation long-term experiments which were divided into three fertilization regimes: (1) NPK, application of chemical fertilizers only; (2) M, application of organic materials only; and (3) MNPK, combined application of organic materials with chemical fertilizer application. Three soil health indexing (SHI) approaches, Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health (SHI-CASH), linear (SHI-L) and sigmoidal (SHI-Sig) were evaluated. SHIs in the M and MNPK treatments were significantly higher than those in the NPK treatment across assessment approaches and were positively correlated with maize yield. A minimum data set including subsurface hardness, wet aggregate stability, available K, available Fe, soil organic carbon and soil protein was established using best subset regression. The soil health indices of smallholders’ farmlands using CASH and MDS were 0.58 (0.42–0.73) and 0.63 (0.40–0.87), respectively. More than 60% smallholders’ fields was at middle or low level. The relationship between SHI-CASH and SHI-MDS (Sig) was better than those for the CASH and linear methods. Our results demonstrate that an MDS based on best subset regression is applicable for evaluating soil health in wheat-maize rotation systems in the NCP. Soil health assessment in smallholders’ farmland indicates that soil health constraints are related to soil and biomass management, which provides insights on pathways towards addressing soil health gaps.

Conservation Agriculture as a Sustainable System for Soil Health: A Review

Soil health is a term used to describe the general state or quality of soil, and in an agroecosystem, soil health can be defined as the ability of the soil to respond to agricultural practices in a way that sustainably supports both agricultural production and the provision of other ecosystem services. Conventional agricultural practices cause deterioration in soil quality, increasing its compaction, water erosion, and salinization and decreasing soil organic matter, nutrient content, and soil biodiversity, which negatively influences the productivity and long-term sustainability of the soil. Currently, there are many evidences throughout the world that demonstrate the capability of conservation agriculture (CA) as a sustainable system to overcome these adverse effects on soil health, to avoid soil degradation and to ensure food security. CA has multiple beneficial effects on the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil. In addition, CA can reduce the negative impacts of conventional agricultural practices on soil health while conserving the production and provision of soil ecosystem services. Today, agricultural development is facing unprecedented challenges, and CA plays a significant role in the sustainability of intensive agriculture. This review will discuss the impact of conservation agricultural practices on soil health and their role in agricultural sustainability.

Using ecosystem integrity to maximize climate mitigation and minimize risk in international forest policy

Several key international policy frameworks involve forests, including the Paris Agreement on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). However, rules and guidelines that treat forest types equally regardless of their ecosystem integrity and risk profiles in terms of forest and carbon loss limit policy effectiveness and can facilitate forest degradation. Here we assess the potential for using a framework of ecosystem integrity to guide policy goals. We review the theory and present a conceptual framework, compare elements of integrity between primary and human-modified forests, and discuss the policy and management implications. We find that primary forests consistently have higher levels of ecosystem integrity and lower risk profiles than human-modified forests. This underscores the need to protect primary forests, develop consistent large-scale data products to identify high-integrity forests, and operationalize a framework of ecosystem integrity. Doing so will optimize long-term carbon storage and the provision of other ecosystem services, and can help guide evolving forest policy at the nexus of the biodiversity and climate crises.

Timing and duration of drought modulate tree growth response in pure and mixed stands of Scots pine and Norway spruce

Abstract Climate change is increasing the severity and frequency of droughts around the globe, leading to tree mortality that reduces production and provision of other ecosystem services. Recent studies show that growth of mixed stands may be more resilient to drought than pure stands. The two most economically important and widely distributed tree species in Europe are Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), but little is known about their susceptibility to drought when coexist. This paper analyses the resilience (resistance, recovery rate and recovery time) at individual‐tree level using a network of tree‐ring collections from 22 sites along a climatic gradient from central Europe to Scandinavia. We aimed to identify differences in growth following drought between the two species and between mixed and pure stands, and how environmental variables (climate, topography and site location) and tree characteristics influence them. We found that both the timing and duration of drought drive the different responses between species and compositions. Norway spruce showed higher vulnerability to summer drought, with both lower resistance and a longer recovery time than Scots pine. Mixtures provided higher drought resistance for both species compared to pure stands, but the benefit decreases with the duration of the drought. Especially climate sensitive and old trees in climatically marginal sites were more affected by drought stress. Synthesis. Promoting Scots pine and mixed forests is a promising strategy for adapting European forests to climate change. However, if future droughts become longer, the advantage of mixed stands could disappear which would be especially negative for Norway spruce.

80 Climate Change and the Beef Industry: A Rapid Expansion

Abstract The beef industry has come under scrutiny in recent decades over its perceived impacts on climate change from both climate scientists and the public. In the United States, only 3.8% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions come directly from livestock primarily from enteric methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions (EPA, 2021). While this is a small contribution, relative to other industries, beef cattle are important sources of atmospheric CH4, and mitigation of this gaseous emission has been highlighted as a tool to slow global climate change (Lynch et al., 2021). Unfortunately, there has not been significant investment in practical GHG mitigation solutions outside of continued progress in improvements in efficiency, which result in reduced emissions per unit of meat produced but has not decreased absolute GHG emissions. Recently, there has been an expansion of corporate sustainability programs and since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, significant growth in environmental-social-governance investments which are creating more pressure for companies to act to reduce GHG emissions in their supply chains, referred to as scope 3 GHG emissions. This has spurred many companies in the meat, poultry, and dairy industries to make net-zero climate commitments that will impact producers. To meet these goals public-private partnerships will be crucial to develop strategies that are viable for producers to adopt while simultaneously accounting for regional differences in climate and management. This may include examining the potential for soil carbon sequestration, direct inhibitors of enteric CH4, reducing volatile N loss, and the adoption of GWP. In summary, while climate is the primary sustainability issue for today’s beef producers, we have the potential to be part of the solution while simultaneously improving food security, economic viability of produces, more resilient supply-chains, and the provision of other ecosystem services.

Total Carbon Stock and Potential Carbon Sequestration Economic Value of Mukogodo Forest-Landscape Ecosystem in Drylands of Northern Kenya

Carbon sequestration is one of the important ecosystem services provided by forested landscapes. Dry forests have high potential for carbon storage. However, their potential to store and sequester carbon is poorly understood in Kenya. Moreover, past attempts to estimate carbon stock have ignored drylands ecosystem heterogeneity. This study assessed the potential of Mukogodo dryland forest-landscape in offsetting carbon dioxide through carbon sequestration and storage. Four carbon pools (above and below ground biomass, soil, dead wood and litter) were analyzed. A total of 51 (400 m2) sample plots were established using stratified-random sampling technique to estimate biomass across six vegetation classes in three landscape types (forest reserve, ranches and conservancies) using nested-plot design. Above ground biomass was determined using generalized multispecies model with diameter at breast height, height and wood density as variables. Below ground, soil, litter and dead wood biomass; carbon stocks and carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2eq) were estimated using secondary information. The CO2eq was multiplied by current prices of carbon trade to compute carbon sequestration value. Mean ± SE of biomass and carbon was determined across vegetation and landscape types and mean differences tested by one-way Analysis of Variance. Mean biomass and carbon was about 79.15 ± 40.22 TB ha-1 and 37.25 ± 18.89 TC ha-1 respectively. Cumulative carbon stock was estimated at 682.08 TC ha-1; forest reserve (251.57 TC ha-1) had significantly high levels of carbon stocks compared to ranches (209.78 TC ha-1) and conservancies (220.73 TC ha-1, P = 0.000). Further, closed forest significantly contributed to the overall biomass and carbon stock (58%). The carbon sequestration potential was about 19.9MTCO2eq with most conservative worth of KES 39.9B (US$40M) per annum. The high carbon stock in the landscape shows the potential of dryland ecosystems as carbon sink for climate change mitigation. However, for communities to benefit from bio-carbon funds in future, sustainable landscape management and restorative measures should be practiced to enhance carbon storage and provision of other ecosystem services.

Identifying plant mixes for multiple ecosystem service provision in agricultural systems using ecological networks

Abstract Managing agricultural environments in a way that maximises the provision of multiple ecosystem services is a significant challenge in the development of sustainable and secure food systems. Advances in network ecology provide a way forward, particularly in arable landscapes, as they incorporate mutualistic and antagonistic interactions associated with crop production. Here, we present an approach to identify mixes of non‐crop plant species that provide multiple ecosystem services while minimising disservices. Genetic algorithms were applied to the Norwood Farm ecological network—a comprehensive dataset of antagonistic and mutualistic species interactions on an organic farm in the United Kingdom. We aimed to show how network analyses can be used to select plants supporting a high diversity of insect pollinators and parasitoids of insect pests, but low diversity of herbivores. Further to this, we wanted to understand the trade‐offs in ecosystem service provision associated with conventional management practices that focus on individual ecosystem services. We show that multilayer network analyses can be used to identify mixes of plant species that maximise the species richness of pollinators and parasitoids (natural enemies of insect pests), while minimising the species richness of herbivores. Trade‐offs between ecosystem processes were apparent with several plant species associated with a high species richness of both positive (pollinators and parasitoids) and negative (herbivores) functional taxonomic groups. As a result, optimal plant species mixes for individual ecosystem services were different from the mix simultaneously maximising pollination and parasitism of pest insects, while minimising herbivory. Synthesis and applications. Plant mixes designed solely for maximising pollinator species richness are not optimal for the provision of other ecosystem services and disservices (e.g. parasitism of insect pests and herbivory). The method presented here will allow for the design of management strategies that facilitate the provision of multiple ecosystem services. To this end, we provide a protocol for practitioners to develop their own plant mixes suitable for farm‐scale management. This avenue of predictive network ecology has the potential to enhance agricultural management, supporting high levels of biodiversity and food production by manipulating ecological networks in specific ways.

Soil Health and Its Improvement Through Novel Agronomic and Innovative Approaches

Soil is an important natural resource providing water, nutrient, and mechanical support for plant growth. In agroecosystem, continuous manipulation of soil is going on due to addition of input, removal of nutrients, changing water balance, and microbial life. These processes affect soil properties (physical, chemical, and biological), and the deviation of these properties from the normal status is controlled by soil buffering capacity and soil resilience. If these changes are beyond the reach of soil resilience, then soil loses its original state, leading to soil degradation. At present, the extent of the degraded area in the world is 1,036 to 1,470 million ha. This urges the need for maintaining soil health rather than the mere addition of input for crop production. Soil health is an integrative property that reflects the capacity of soil to respond to agricultural intervention, so that it continues to support both agricultural production and the provision of other ecosystem services. Maintaining the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil is needed to keep it healthy, and this is possible through the adoption of different agronomic approaches. The diversification of nutrient sources with emphasis on organic sources, adoption of principles of conservation agriculture, enhancement of soil microbial diversity, efficient resource recycling through the integrated farming system, and amendment addition for correcting soil reactions are potential options for improving soil health, and are discussed in this review. This article reviewed the concept of soil health and its development, issues related to soil health, and indicators of healthy soil. At the same time, the impact of the ill health of the soil on crop productivity and resource use efficiency reported in different parts of the world in recent years are also reviewed. The agro-techniques such as green and brown manuring in arable land and agroforestry on degraded and marginal land were followed on piece meal basis and for economic gain. The potential of these and several other options for maintaining soil need to be recognized, evaluated, and quantified for their wider application on the front of soil health management avenues. The use of crop residue, agro-industrial waste, and untreated mineral or industrial waste (basic slag, phosphogypsum, etc.) as soil amendments has a huge potential in maintaining healthy soil along with serving as sources of crop nutrition. The review emphasizes the evaluation and quantification of present-day followed agro-techniques for their contribution to soil health improvement across agro-climatic regions and for wider implications. Furthermore, emphasis is given to innovative approaches for soil health management rather than mere application of manures and fertilizers for crop nutrition.

Coastal protection assessment: a tradeoff between ecological, social, and economic issues

AbstractMarine coastal ecosystems are crucial to human populations in reducing disaster risk. Least Developed Countries are particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, such as sea‐level rise and storm surges. The Mauritanian coast, West Africa, ranks among the most vulnerable worldwide to sea‐level rise, and coastal communities in the National Park of Banc d’Arguin (PNBA) are particularly at risk. Here, we assessed the service of coastal protection in PNBA by (1) mapping the coastal marine ecosystems with Sentinel‐2 imagery and determining their spatial wave height attenuation rates; (2) assessing the vulnerability of villages and natural habitats to coastal hazard risk; and (3) assessing the applicability of coastal protection measures in the PNBA. We found that a total of 83% of the populated coastline presents a moderate to high risk of flooding and erosion, with Iwik and R’Gueiba being the most threatened villages in the PNBA. As for the ecological risk, two low‐elevated islands, which support breeding colonies of birds, are particularly vulnerable to sea‐level rise. However, in other areas, the rupture in the dune cord created new lagoons that present valuable ecological and economic interests like the Lagoon of Bellaat. Improving the comprehension of wave attenuation provided by coastal habitats, combined with identifying the vulnerability and applicability of coastal protection measures, is essential for achieving the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction goals. In the PNBA, relocation of identified villages at risk is probably the best cost‐effective solution with the least disturbance to both breeding and wintering birds. Protection of coastal ecosystems will also ensure a continued provision of other ecosystem services, including food supply for sea dependent populations, and contribute to achieving the Paris Agreement and Sustainable Development Goals.

Water use of Prosopis juliflora and its impacts on catchment water budget and rural livelihoods in Afar Region, Ethiopia

Dense impenetrable thickets of invasive trees and shrubs compete with other water users and thus disrupt ecosystem functioning and services. This study assessed water use by the evergreen Prosopis juliflora, one of the dominant invasive tree species in semi-arid and arid ecosystems in the tropical regions of Eastern Africa. The objectives of the study were to (1) analyze the seasonal water use patterns of P. juliflora in various locations in Afar Region, Ethiopia, (2) up-scale the water use from individual tree transpiration and stand evapotranspiration (ET) to the entire invaded area, and 3) estimate the monetary value of water lost due to the invasion. The sap flow rates of individual P. juliflora trees were measured using the heat ratio method while stand ET was quantified using the eddy covariance method. Transpiration by individual trees ranged from 1–36 L/day, with an average of 7 L of water per tree per day. The daily average transpiration of a Prosopis tree was about 3.4 (± 0.5) mm and the daily average ET of a dense Prosopis stand was about 3.7 (± 1.6) mm. Using a fractional cover map of P. juliflora (over an area of 1.18 million ha), water use of P. juliflora in Afar Region was estimated to be approximately 3.1–3.3 billion m3/yr. This volume of water would be sufficient to irrigate about 460,000 ha of cotton or 330,000 ha of sugar cane, the main crops in the area, which would generate an estimated net benefit of approximately US$ 320 million and US$ 470 million per growing season from cotton and sugarcane, respectively. Hence, P. juliflora invasion in the Afar Region has serious impacts on water availability and on the provision of other ecosystem services and ultimately on rural livelihoods.

Potensi Karbon dan Jasa Lingkungan: Studi Hutan Lindung Gunung Bondang Kabupaten Murung Raya, Kalimantan Tengah, Indonesia

This research was examine the potential for CO2 absorption and the provision of other ecosystem services of the Dipterocarpaceae-dominated Gunung Bondang Protection Forest in Murung Raya Regency, Central Kalimantan. The study focuses on potential carbon and ecosystem services in the form of CO2 sequestration, O2 production and payments in the form of Carbon creditsin the Gunung Bondang Protected Forest area.The study was conducted non-destructively using the parameters of the diameter and total height of the tree. The results showed the composition of the tree species was dominated by Dipterocarpaceae family, the potential biomass was 624.86 tons/ha, the potential C was 293.68 tons/ha and the potential of environmental services in the form of CO2 absorbed was 1,077.83 tons/ha, the production O2 was 786.81 tons/ha and the carbon credits was US$ 41,788/ha. Moreover, these result show the strong relevance of the Gunung Bondang Protection Forest for climate change mitigation. The protection and restoration of degraded forest parts contribute to the climate mitigation goals set by the Indonesian government, and the issuance of Carbon credits will be an important financial incentive for sustainable forest management and conservation.

Farm scale assessment of the impacts of biodiversity enhancement on the financial and environmental performance of mixed livestock farms in New Zealand

In New Zealand, 25% of the remaining indigenous vegetation cover is found on mixed livestock farms located predominantly in hill country. Despite evidence that adding natural capital stocks in the form of biodiversity enhancement is likely to increase the provision of ecosystem services on and off farmland, quantitative data are largely lacking. This research takes a case study approach to providing an evaluation of the implications of advancing a biodiversity enhancement programme on the financial and environmental performance of three mixed livestock farms across New Zealand.The research used a farm system optimisation model to quantify the effects of biodiversity enhancement on different aspects of the farm business. The three farms studied varied in size, geo-climatic zones, amount of indigenous vegetation and the size of the proposed biodiversity enhancement programme. Shifting even a small part of farmland from grazing to biodiversity enhancement affects farm system design, resulting in changes to the livestock policy, sale and purchase dates of livestock and the grazing management plan. These changes also affect farm revenue, Net Present Value and annuity, all of which declined by 3–9% across the three farms over the 10 years modelled. However, after implementation of the biodiversity enhancement programme, there was a small increase in the annuity per hectare grazed compared with the Base farm scenario for two of the three farms studied. The provision of other ecosystem services was quantified on one farm, and in sharp contrast, these increased, which included greenhouse gas regulation with additional C storage and decreased GHG emissions, and increased filtering and nutrient retention resulting in a reduction in N and P losses to water. Biodiversity enhancement on farm has the potential to improve aesthetics, increase sense of place, recreational and spiritual values and provision of other food products. The current study highlighted the fact that our current farm system models lack the capability to provide quantitative information on the provision of ecosystem services at the farm scale, and do not include all the natural resources across different areas of the farm. This should be a priority in the future.

Social learning and land lease to stimulate the delivery of ecosystem services in intensive arable farming

Current intensive arable production systems tend to favour food production at the cost of the provision of other ecosystem services. In order to decrease the environmental impact and increase the variety and level of ecosystem services delivery, arable farmers would need to change their current practices. Governance arrangements aimed at such changes of behaviour not only include those from government, but also from institutions as developed bottom-up by farmers, other actors and networks. This paper investigates the role that governance arrangements developed by groups of farmers in intensive arable production systems in The Netherlands may have in changing agronomic practices that will improve the delivery of regulating and cultural ecosystem services. We evaluate the arrangements according to their potential effects on farmers and their social environment. Firstly, we consider the effect on farmers’ motivation and ability to change their practices. And secondly we consider the legitimation of, and demand for behavioural change by their social environment. The results suggest that social learning and land lease are promising supportive governance arrangements for behavioural change, and that private and public governance arrangements can be complementary.

Coffee agroforestry systems capable of reducing disease-induced yield and economic losses while providing multiple ecosystem services

Crop losses caused by pests and diseases decrease the incomes and threaten the livelihoods of thousands of families worldwide. A good example of the magnitude of these impacts are the massive crop losses experienced by coffee farmers in Central America due to coffee leaf rust. Coffee farmers need agroecosystems that are capable of regulating the negative impacts of pests and diseases while providing other ecosystem services on which their households and society depend. In this study, we aimed to identify the most promising coffee agroforestry systems for regulating diseases and ensuring the provision of other ecosystem services. During two years, in a research network of 61 coffee plots under a wide variety of shade and management conditions in Turrialba, Costa Rica, we quantified primary and secondary coffee losses (yield and economic losses) and indicators of three other ecosystem services: provisioning of agroforestry products (bananas, plantains, other fruits, and timber), maintenance of soil fertility and carbon sequestration. We then performed an analysis of the relationships between losses and ecosystem service indicators. Based on the results of relationships and on three criteria, we identified the coffee agroforestry systems that had the lowest losses due to diseases and that provided desirable levels of agroforestry products, soil fertility and carbon sequestration. We found multiple significant relationships between losses and ecosystem services (including both tradeoffs and synergies) which allowed us to derive recommendations for better management strategies to reduce yield losses. We identified six coffee agroforestry systems (CAFs) as the most promising ones for reducing losses while simultaneously providing other ecosystem services. One of these CAFs was a simple agroforestry system (dominated by service trees), three were medium diversified CAFs and two were highly diversified CAFs (systems including service trees, timber trees, fruit trees and musaceas). The six CAFS differed in their cropping practices and farmer profitability objectives. The six CAFs offer several options for the design of new coffee plantations or for the transformation of existing plantations. Several of this promising CAFs use little fungicides, which is an indicator that the reduction of chemical inputs could be possible. Our results suggest that the regulation of diseases and associated losses in agroforestry systems should be based on, and take advantage of, the positive effects of plant biodiversity, adequate shade cover, good soil fertility, and minimal use of fungicides.

Ant biodiversity and ecosystem services in bioenergy landscapes

Most strategies for limiting global climate change invoke the use of bioenergy, but biofuel crops vary in climate mitigation potential and in the provision of other ecosystem services. The predominant biofuel in North America is ethanol produced from corn Zea mays. Corn is grown on ∼360,000 km2 of land in the U.S. and ∼40 % of the yield is used for ethanol production. Despite its prevalence, corn ethanol is a poor climate change mitigator and the spread of intensive corn agriculture also leads to the loss of biodiversity and an unknown complement of associated ecosystem services. To test for effects of land use intensity on the provision of ecosystem services from biofuel crops, we compared insect communities inhabiting long-term experiments in which land use intensity varied from annual corn production to less intensive native perennial biofuel crops (switchgrass and restored prairie) and unmanaged native forests. Within the experiments we focused on ants (Formicidae: Hymenoptera), including their diversity, abundance, functional traits, and predation of biofuel crop pests. Native perennial biofuel crops supported up to 185 % more ant species than corn fields and provided up to 55 % more natural pest suppression. They also contained higher functional richness by supporting social parasites and seed dispersing ants that were absent in corn. Biofuel crops did not differ in ant activity or the prevalence of introduced ants. Our results highlight tradeoffs in bioenergy production and suggest ways to maximize benefits for wildlife and people. Converting some corn fields to prairie or other native vegetation could restore landscapes while mitigating climate change and meeting energy needs.

Optimal strategies for ecosystem services provision in Amazonian production forests

Although tropical forests harbour most of the terrestrial carbon and biological diversity on Earth they continue to be deforested or degraded at high rates. In Amazonia, the largest tropical forest on Earth, a sixth of the remaining natural forests is formally dedicated to timber extraction through selective logging. Reconciling timber extraction with the provision of other ecosystem services (ES) remains a major challenge for forest managers and policy-makers. This study applies a spatial optimisation of logging in Amazonian production forests to analyse potential trade-offs between timber extraction and recovery, carbon storage, and biodiversity conservation. Current logging regulations with unique cutting cycles result in sub-optimal ES-use efficiency. Long-term timber provision would require the adoption of a land-sharing strategy that involves extensive low-intensity logging, although high transport and road-building costs might make this approach economically unattractive. By contrast, retention of carbon and biodiversity would be enhanced by a land-sparing strategy restricting high-intensive logging to designated areas such as the outer fringes of the region. Depending on management goals and societal demands, either choice will substantially influence the future of Amazonian forests. Overall, our results highlight the need for revaluation of current logging regulations and regional cooperation among Amazonian countries to enhance coherent and trans-boundary forest management.

Landscape degradation in the world and in Hungary

The concept of landscape degradation interprets the process in landscape ecological sense, i.e. the degradation of one landscape forming factor leads to the degradation of the whole landscape. The consequence is a persistent decline in land productivity and in the provision of other ecosystem services. Global environmental change is driven mainly by human influence in the Anthropocene with an exponentially growing significance in time. Global environmental processes are very much interrelated. Because of population growth more food, fibre, clean water, energy etc. will be needed and there are two ways to achieve this, either to gain new areas for cultivation by changing present land use or to intensify cultivation in the areas with the best conditions for cultivation. Deforestation and forest degradation are dealt with in detail in the paper. The introduction of soil degradation processes follows the system given in the EEA Environmental Assessment Report (2003). The effect of landscape degradation on ecosystem services is well explained by the fact that approximately 20 per cent of the Earth’s vegetated surface shows persistent declining trends in productivity, mainly as a result of land/water use and management practices (UNCCD 2017). Landscape degradation processes of Hungary are discussed in the paper, including sheet, gully and wind erosion, soil sealing, salinization, physical degradation, landslides, desertification. An estimation of the aesthetical value of the landscape is provided as well concluding that the surface of the country represents a relatively high aesthetical value. The main conclusion is that Hungarian landscapes are well maintained and they belong to the most precious European landscapes. It should be added that all degradation processes represent important environmental problems to be combatted on the basis of a well-established policy making.