Provinces In Northeastern Thailand Research Articles

Characteristics, risk factors, and outcomes related to Zika virus infection during pregnancy in Northeastern Thailand: A prospective pregnancy cohort study, 2018-2020.

In response to the 2015-2016 Zika virus (ZIKV) outbreak and the causal relationship established between maternal ZIKV infection and adverse infant outcomes, we conducted a cohort study to estimate the incidence of ZIKV infection in pregnancy and assess its impacts in women and infants. From May 2018-January 2020, we prospectively followed pregnant women recruited from 134 participating hospitals in two non-adjacent provinces in northeastern Thailand. We collected demographic, clinical, and epidemiologic data and blood and urine at routine antenatal care visits until delivery. ZIKV infections were confirmed by real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). Specimens with confirmed ZIKV underwent whole genome sequencing. Among 3,312 women enrolled, 12 (0.36%) had ZIKV infections, of which two (17%) were detected at enrollment. Ten (83%, 3 in 2nd and 7 in 3rd trimester) ZIKV infections were detected during study follow-up, resulting in an infection rate of 0.15 per 1,000 person-weeks (95% CI: 0.07-0.28). The majority (11/12, 91.7%) of infections occurred in one province. Persistent ZIKV viremia (42 days) was found in only one woman. Six women with confirmed ZIKV infections were asymptomatic until delivery. Sequencing of 8 ZIKV isolates revealed all were of Asian lineage. All 12 ZIKV infected women gave birth to live, full-term infants; the only observed adverse birth outcome was low birth weight in one (8%) infant. Pregnancies in 3,300 ZIKV-rRT-PCR-negative women were complicated by 101 (3%) fetal deaths, of which 67 (66%) had miscarriages and 34 (34%) had stillbirths. There were no differences between adverse fetal or birth outcomes of live infants born to ZIKV-rRT-PCR-positive mothers compared to live infants born to ZIKV-rRT-PCR-negative mothers. Confirmed ZIKV infections occurred infrequently in this large pregnancy cohort and observed adverse maternal and birth outcomes did not differ between mothers with and without confirmed infections.

Comparing the Collaboration of Smallholder Farmers through Participatory Guarantee System Practices in Northeastern Thailand

Organic agriculture based on the participatory guarantee system (PGS) is frequently touted as a tool for improving ecosystem sustainability and self-reliance and for alleviating the poverty of smallholder farmers in Thailand. However, specific criteria must be fulfilled for products to be certified organic. In this paper, we investigate the similarities and differences between three cases of organic agricultural production (based on the participatory guarantee system) in four provinces in northeastern Thailand: Nong Bua Lam Phu, Nakhon Phanom, Ubon Ratchathani, and Nakhon Ratchasima. A total of 135 smallholder farmers were selected to act as informants, and semi-structured interviews were held. The participatory guarantee system was utilized, considering the farmers’ diverse agricultural backgrounds and socio-economic conditions. For agriculture to be adapted with the ultimate aim of sustainability, policy support will be necessary in the form of financial measures and capacity building.

Characterization of the bacterial microbiota of cattle ticks in northeastern Thailand through 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing

Ticks are vectors of a variety of pathogens that can infect humans and animals. Ticks also harbor non-pathogenic microbiota. This study characterized the microbiota of the ticks infesting beef cattle in Thailand. Two species of ticks; Rhipicephalus microplus (n = 15) and Haemaphysalis bispinosa (n = 5), were collected in seven provinces in northeastern Thailand. Microbial community profile of ticks was examined based on sequences of the V3-V4 region of 16S rRNA gene. Proteobacteria (Pseudomonadota) was the most abundant phylum, followed by Firmicutes (Bacillota), and Actinobacteriota. Coxiella-like endosymbiont was the most abundant bacterial taxon overall (49% of sequence reads), followed by Anaplasma (8.5%), Corynebacterium (5.5%), Ehrlichia (3.9%), and Castellaniella (3.4%). Co-infections of the pathogenic bacteria Ehrlichia and Anaplasma were detected in 19/20 (95%) female ticks. The tick with the lowest number of bacteria had the lowest abundance of the Coxiella-like endosymbiont, and the pathogenic bacteria Anaplasma and Ehrlichia were absent. This study provides baseline information of the microbiota of cattle ticks in northeastern Thailand, suggesting that ticks carry a few dominant bacterial taxa that are primarily non-pathogenic but can co-occur with pathogenic microorganisms. The information obtained is useful for monitoring disease outbreaks in the future and informing prevention and control strategies against cattle tick-borne diseases.

The social-ecological resilience indicators of organic rice production in Northeastern Thailand

Uncertainties in agriculture have been posing serious threats to organic farmers, especially the marginal ones in developing countries such as Thailand. Building resilience appears the most workable strategy to help them cope with those threats since its definitions and operation fundamentally focus upon the capacity to adapt to all types of change to be better in consequences. In this study, the author used a participatory principle and qualitative data analysis as tools. Sixty-two experienced organic farmers from four provinces in Northeastern Thailand were purposively selected as the informants. They were asked individually regarding the resilience concepts in agroecological contexts and related theories to generate a specific set of indicators whose qualities can maintain and recover organic rice production against ongoing change. Consequently, guided by three processes of qualitative study and the nominal group technique (NGT) aimed at converting abstract ideas into practical features aligned with resilience theories in agroecosystems, the organic farmers developed 28 indexes known as social-ecological resilience indicators (SERIs). The SERIs capture important components related to diversity and resource accessibility, such as ownership of legal credit sources and types of organic certification, to enhance adaptive capacity. The SERIs can serve as both quantifiable evaluation and qualitative guidance because the informants’ social, ecological, and cultural contexts are integrated. The SERIs are effective to provide empirical insights into practices and assets for building resilience. The SERIs are also vital to propose policies to encourage organic farmers to conduct adaptations and transformation during a period of change.

Species diversity and traditional utilization of bamboos (Poaceae) on the Phu Thai Ethnic Group in northeastern Thailand

Abstract. Sudchaleaw S, Saensouk S, Saensouk P, Sungkaew S. 2023. Species diversity and traditional utilization of bamboos (Poaceae) on the Phu Thai Ethnic Group in northeastern Thailand. Biodiversitas 24: 2261-2271. The study of species diversity by survey method and traditional utilization by interviewing local philosophers, folk healers, elders, and villagers with semi-structured interviews of bamboos (Poaceae) in the Phu Thai Ethnic Group in four provinces including Kalasin, Mukdahan, Nakhon Phanom, and Sakon Nakhon Provinces, in the Northeast of Thailand was conducted from May 2019 to August 2021. In addition, the aim of this research is to study the species diversity and traditional utilization of Bamboo (Poaceae) in the Phu Thai Ethnic Group in Nakhon Phanom, Sakon Nakhon, Kalasin, and Mukdahan Provinces, in Northeastern Thailand. Survey Five genera, and 13 species including Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss, B. beecheyana Munro, B. burmanica Gamble, B. nutans Wall. ex Munro, B. spinosa Roxb., B. vulgaris Schrad. ex J.C.Wendl., Dendrocalamus asper (Schult. & Schult.f.) Backer ex K. Heyne, D. giganteus Munro, D. sinicus L.C. Chia & J.L.Sun, Gigantochloa albociliata (Munro) Kurz, Thyrsostachys siamensis Gamble, ×Thyrsocalamus liang Sungkaew & W.L. Goh, and Vietnamosasa pusilla (A. Chev. & A. Camus) T.Q. Nguyen were found. The genus with the highest species is Bambusa, with seven species, followed by Dendrocalamus (3 species). One species per genus was found in the other three genera: Gigantochloa, Thyrsostachys, and Vietnamosasa. Vernacular name, distribution, ecology, and phenology are present here. The traditional utilization of bamboos in the Phu Thai Ethnic Group in these four provinces indicated that bamboo was used as food for 13 species from five genera. While six species in three genera were used for medicinal purposes, 13 species from five genera were used as equipment, appliances, and housing materials, seven species from four genera were used as ornamental plants, and 13 species from five genera were used in ritualistic ceremonies. The data on species diversity and traditional utilization of bamboos in the Phu Thai Ethnic Group in these four provinces in Northeastern Thailand were newly reported.

Labour, mechanization, market integration, and government policy: Agrarian change and lowland rice cultivation in northeastern Thailand and southern Laos

AbstractOver the last two decades, significant changes in lowland rice cultivation practices have occurred in mainland Southeast Asia. Here, we compare lowland rice farming in six provinces in northeastern Thailand and four districts in Savannakhet Province in southern Laos and consider the ways that agrarian change, including the deepening of capitalist relations, is occurring. Some of the most important changes taking place relate to increasing mechanization, remittances, changing bases of labour's simple reproduction, and the increased importance of international markets, especially for organic rice. These changes and associated government policies are having a considerable influence on agricultural practices. The Chinese market for organic rice from Laos is reducing pesticide and herbicides use and prolonging hand‐transplanting of paddy, while encouraging farmers to use uniform sized high‐yielding rice varieties, and abandoning local seeds. Rice exports from Laos are having both positive and negative environmental effects, indicating the nuanced influences of particular international markets and government policies.

Association of comorbidity between Opisthorchis viverrini infection and diabetes mellitus in the development of cholangiocarcinoma among a high-risk population, northeastern Thailand.

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a category of lethal hepatobiliary malignancies. Previous studies have found that Opisthorchis viverrini infection and diabetes mellitus (DM) are closely correlated with CCA. However, few studies have discussed the association of CCA with a combination of both O. viverrini infection and DM. This study aimed to assess the correlation of CCA with various combinations of O. viverrini infection and DM among a high-risk population in northeastern Thailand. This study included participants from 20 provinces in northeastern Thailand who had been screened for CCA in the Cholangiocarcinoma Screening and Care Program (CASCAP) between 2013 and 2019. Histories of O. viverrini infection and DM diagnosis were obtained using a health questionnaire. CCA screening used ultrasonography with a definitive diagnosis based on histopathology. Multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression was performed to quantify the association, which is presented as adjusted odds ratios (aOR) and their 95% confidence intervals (CI). Overall, 263,776 participants were included, of whom 32.4% were infected with O. viverrini, 8.2% were diagnosed with DM, and 2.9% had a history of both O. viverrini infection and DM. The overall rate of CCA was 0.36%. Of those infected with O. viverrini, 0.47% had CCA; among those with DM, 0.59% had CCA and among those infected with O. viverrini and had DM, 0.73% had CCA. Compared with participants who were not infected with O. viverrini and were non-DM, the aOR for those infected with O. viverrini and with DM was 2.36 (95% CI: 1.74-3.21; p-value <0.001). The combination of O. viverrini infection and DM was highly associated with CCA, and these two conditions had a combined effect on this association that was greater than that of either alone. These findings suggest that CCA screening should have a strong focus on people with a combination of O. viverrini infection and DM.

Measurement of NORM in Building Materials to Assess Radiological Hazards to Human Health and Develop the Standard Guidelines for Residents in Thailand: Case Study in Sand Samples Collected from Seven Northeastern Thailand Provinces

A total of 223 sand samples collected from seven provinces in Northeastern Thailand were analyzed for their gamma radioactivity from naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs), and the data were used to calculate the concentrations of Ra-226, Th-232, and K-40. Radiological safety indicators such as the indoor external dose rates (Din), the annual indoor effective dose (Ein), the activity concentration index (I), the radium equivalent activity (Raeq), the external hazard index (Hex), the internal haphazard index (Hin), and the excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) were calculated. The activity concentrations were found to be 36 ± 10 Bq/kg for Ra-226, 2.64 ± 0.58 Bq/kg for Th-232, and 323 ± 168 Bq/kg for K-40. Din is 62 ± 23 nGy/h. The Ein is 0.30 ± 0.11 mSv/y. The activity concentrations and other indicators were reported by each province and compared with the safety standards and are found to be within the safe limits in this study. The results can be used to develop the standard guideline levels for choosing building materials in Thailand.

Investigating the microbiota of fermented fish products (Pla-ra) from different communities of northeastern Thailand

DNA-sequencing was performed on the V3-V4 regions of 16S rRNA genes to investigate the microbial diversity of five samples of fermented freshwater fish (pla-ra) from three provinces in northeastern Thailand. The samples had salt concentrations ranging from 7 to 10%, pH values from 4.83 to 7.15, and D-/L-lactic acid concentrations of 90 to 450 mg/l. A total of 598 operational taxonomic units were annotated at various taxonomic ranks based on the SILVA Database. The lactic-acid and halophilic genera Tetragenococcus, Halanaerobium and Lactobacillus were among the dominant taxa of bacteria. The top 20 non-redundant taxa were considered in more detail. In two pla-ra samples, Tetragenococcus muriaticus was commonly identified. Halanaerobium fermentans was the most abundant species in a third sample and co-dominant in another sample. Lactobacillus rennini was dominant in the pla-ra sample from Roi Et Province. Additionally, other beneficial bacteria were detected including Staphylococcus nepalensis, Lactobacillus sakei, Lactobacillus pentosus, Weissella confusa, and Bifidobacterium bifidum. Differences between samples may be due to use of different raw materials, salt concentrations, recipes, processes and fermentation periods. The microbial communities in pla-ra provide a better understanding of the production outcomes of traditional products. Further optimization of the fermentation process, for example by using dominant bacterial taxa in starter cultures, may improve processes of food fermentation, food quality and flavor control, providing useful guidelines for industrial applications.

Improving the Socio-Economic Lot of Farmers in Thailand through Area-Yield Rice Crop Insurance at District Level

Thai farmers face various risks associated with natural disasters, adversely affecting their income. Such events appear to be increasing each year in Thailand, which is one of the world leaders for harvested area of rice. Despite this, its yields are lower than various nations with a considerably smaller crop area. With a view to helping farmers to manage the relevant risks and so improve their socio-economic lot, there is a real need to adopt an agricultural financial tool called 'area-yield crop insurance'. Therefore, on the basis that area selection is the first key step towards introducing this type of policy at district level, this paper aims to group together similar districts. Hence the author conducted a cluster analysis of districts in six provinces in north-eastern Thailand. The results reveal differences between rice cultivation in the districts studied but also certain similarities, with the characteristics of some districts in a given province resembling those of districts in one or more other provinces. As a result, five groups of similar districts are mooted. These clusters, each having their own features, provide a powerful and useful mechanism for practical implementation, enabling the expected premium rates to be tailored better to the local context and mitigating a specific drawback, namely the basis risk of a prospective area-based crop insurance policy for the designated area.

Low Prevalence of Leptospira Carriage in Rodents in Leptospirosis-Endemic Northeastern Thailand.

Leptospirosis is a neglected zoonotic disease affecting mostly the world’s tropical regions. The rural people of northeastern Thailand suffer from a large number of leptospirosis infections, and their abundant rice fields are optimal rodent habitats. To evaluate the contribution of diversity and carriage rate of pathogenic Leptospira in rodent reservoirs to leptospirosis incidence, we surveyed rodents, between 2011 and 2012, in four provinces in northeastern Thailand with the highest incidence rates of human leptospirosis cases. We used lipL32 real-time PCR to detect pathogenic Leptospira in rodent kidneys, partial 16S rRNA gene sequencing to classify the infecting Leptospira species, and whole 16S rDNA sequencing to classify species of isolated Leptospira. Overall prevalence of Leptospira infection was 3.6% (18/495). Among infected rodents, Bandicota indica (14.3%), Rattus exulans (3.6%), and R. rattus (3.2%) had renal carriage. We identified two pathogenic Leptospira species: L. interrogans (n = 15) and L. borgpetersenii (n = 3). In addition, an L. wolffii (LS0914U) isolate was recovered from the urine of B. indica. Leptospira infection was more prevalent in low density rodent populations, such as B. indica. In contrast, there was a lower prevalence of Leptospira infection in high density rodent populations of R. exulans and R. rattus.

Spatial Interaction Effect of Population Density Patterns in Sub-Districts of Northeastern Thailand

The north-eastern region in Thailand is the largest in area and population. Its average income per capita is, however, the lowest in Thailand. This phenomenon leads to migration to big cities, which are considered economic centres. We investigated the effect of spatial interaction on the population density pattern in 20 provinces in north-eastern Thailand. Data was obtained from the compilation and preparation of the demographic data of 2676 sub-districts for 2002–2017. A field survey was conducted through GPS at educational institutions, hospitals, airports, government offices, and shopping malls. The data was analysed using spatial autocorrelation analysis by a global indicator (global Moran’s I) and a local indicator (local Moran’s I and Getis–Ord Gi*). Eight Mueang districts exhibited the high-high (H-H) cluster pattern or hot spot at an increasing yearly rate. In addition, the area with the highest gravity was located near service sources and was found to have the largest population. Moreover, gravity interaction with service sources had a strong positive correlation with migration patterns. Thus, the cluster of areas with the greatest population density is located within the Mueang district in one of the provinces with most service sources, as these places attract people and consequently industrial factories and service trades.

Phyllodiaptomus (Phyllodiaptomus) roietensis, a new diaptomid copepod (Copepoda, Calanoida) from temporary waters in Thailand and Cambodia, with a key to the species.

Phyllodiaptomus (Phyllodiaptomus) roietensissp. nov. was collected from temporary water bodies in Roi Et and Nakhon Ratchasima provinces in northeastern Thailand and Kampong Thom Province in central Cambodia. The new species is closely related to Phyllodiaptomus (P.) surinensis Sanoamuang & Yindee, 2001 in that it shares common morphological characters in the males: urosomites 2–3, P5 intercoxal sclerite, right P5 Exp-2, and left P5 Exp. Minor differences on the right antennule, right caudal ramus, P5 basis and Enp exist. The females differ in their Pdg 5, genital double-somite, and P5. An updated key to the species of the genus Phyllodiaptomus Kiefer, 1936 is provided.

Markov Switching Integer-Valued Generalized Auto-Regressive Conditional Heteroscedastic Models for Dengue Counts

SummaryThis study models weekly dengue case counts with two climatological variables: temperature and precipitation. Since conventional zero-inflated integer-valued generalized auto-regressive conditional heteroscedastic (GARCH) models and Poisson regression cannot properly illustrate consecutive 0s in time series of counts, the paper proposes a Markov switching Poisson integer-valued GARCH model wherein a first-order Markov process governs the switching mechanism. This newly designed model has some interesting statistical features: lagged dependence, overdispersion, consecutive 0s, non-linear dynamics and time varying coefficients for the meteorological variables governed by a two-state Markov chain structure. We perform parameter estimation and model selection within a Bayesian framework via a Markov chain Monte Carlo scheme. As an illustration, we conduct a simulation study to examine the effectiveness of the Bayesian method and analyse 12-year weekly dengue case counts from five provinces in north-eastern Thailand. The evidence strongly supports that the proposed Markov switching Poisson integer-valued GARCH model with two climatological covariates appropriately describes consecutive 0s, non-linear dynamics and seasonal patterns. The posterior probabilities deliver clear insight into the state changes that are captured in the data set modelled. We use predictive credible intervals for monitoring and for providing early warning signals of outbreaks.

Correlation between dengue virus serotypes in dengue patients and in mosquitoes at patients’ houses and surrounding in Northeastern Thailand

Purpose: Dengue virus (DENV) is the most important causative agent of arthropod-borne viral disease in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. DENV is transmitted between human to human via mosquitoes, Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. By the late 2000s, the dengue was widespread among regions in Thailand and dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) had become a leading cause of hospitalization and death. Meanwhile dengue surveillance by mosquitoes control has been performed immediately after case report. To understand the role of dengue surveillance in Northeastern Thailand, DENV serotypes were investigated in mosquitoes at patients’ houses and surrounding area during 2016-2018. Methods & Materials: One hundred and eighty-eight mosquito pooled samples were collected from 97 dengue fever-suspected patients’ houses in 4 provinces in Northeastern Thailand – Khon Kaen, Roi Et, Kalasin and Mahasalakham province. DENV and serotyping were investigated in all pooled mosquito samples by two step reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) using 5 sets of primer. The plasma samples of dengue fever-suspected patients from 8 hospitals were determined for DENV serotype by RT-PCR Results: DENV-RNA was found in 28.87% (28/97) of dengue-suspected patients and consisted of DENV-1 (15%), DENV-2 (7%), DENV-3 (17%), and DENV-4 (61%15). Meanwhile, DENV-RNA was found in 34.04% (64/188) of mosquito pools and consisted of DENV-1 (43%), DENV-4 (33%), DENV-2 (16%) and DENV-3 (8%). Interestingly, DENV detection in mosquito pools was positive in both of dengue patients’ houses (71%) and DENV negative patients’ houses (93%). The matching of DENV serotype in dengue patients and mosquito pools collected from their houses and surrounding area were 57% whereas unmatching DENV serotype was found in 43% of dengue patients and mosquito pools. Most of these patients were students (70%) and workers (29%) who spend day time outside their houses. Conclusion: The circulation of DENV was found in mosquitoes at patients’ houses and surrounding area and also from DENV negative patients’ houses. From the correlation of matching DENV serotype result might suggest that the source of DENV transmission is not only from mosquitoes in patient's house but also from others regions.

Genetic variation of Macrobrachium lanchesteri (De Man, 1911) in Northeastern Thailand

The freshwater prawn Macrobrachium lanchesteri is one of the most economically important and widely distributed species in Northeastern Thailand. However, few studies have investigated the genetic variation of these crustaceans. Water quality, morphometrics and genetic variation were determined for 1,219 individuals of M. lanchesteri from 11 provinces in Northeastern Thailand. Water quality analysis showed water temperature, pH, water hardness and dissolved oxygen as 25 to 33ºC, 6 to 9, 64 to 101 ml l−1 and 4 to 7.5 ml l−1 respectively. Water quality indicated that aquatic animals could live. Morphological characters showed total length as 1.5to 4.5 cm with M. lanchesteri mean length of females higher than males in all 11 provinces. M. lanchesteri from Nong Khai presented the largest size with Buri Ram mostly comprising the smallest. Genetic variation was determined using the PCR-RFLP technique with five restriction enzymes as Dde I, Alu I, Hinf I, Bgl II and Hae III. Results showed one composite haplotype when samples were digested with Dde I, Alu I, Hinf I, Bgl II and Hae III, respectively, as AAAAA. A total of 9 haplotypes were detected. Nucleotide sequencing analysis found low genetic variation in populations of M. lanchesteri in Northeastern Thailand ranged from 0 to 0.035. Phylogenetic tree (UPGMA) construction determined that the M. lanchesteri population constituted two clades which all populations closely related apart from one separate population. This study can be used as a guideline for selection of commercial cultures by shrimp breeders and may also be useful for shrimp conservation.

An Integrated Tourism Model based on Local Identity for Ecological, Historical, and Cultural Tourism

The objective of this paper is to study local identity and explore the potential for regional resources management and valuation of the historic environment a case study of the north-eastern provinces of Thailand, for guiding the tourism environmental design elements. The point of view has the goal creative integrate tourism model and product development from local identity embedded localism. This concept advocates the philosophy that tourism businesses must develop products and marketing strategies that not only address the needs of consumers but also safeguard the local identity.

Carcinogenic Liver Fluke and Others Contaminated in Pickled Fish of Northeastern Thailand

Twenty provinces in northeastern Thailand were investigated for fluke metacercariae contamination in pickled fish, or pla-som, during January –June 2016. A total of 129 pickled fish shops were randomly chosen. Samples were digested with acid-pepsin and those found to be infected with metacercariae were fed to hamsters to test for metacercariae infectivity. The results demonstrated that only 20.2% of the pla-som samples were infected with fluke metacercariae (mc), at various levels (1 to 268 mc/kg). All recovered fluke metacercariae were inactive, degenerated and could not develop to adults in the animal model. In conclusion, the fluke mc infection status in pla-som was correlated with the prevalence of fluke infection in this region known for high O.viverrini and cholangiocarcinoma development. Clearly, systematic control of the fluke life cycle is needed. Whether pickling is an effective preventive measure needs further assessment.

Human-Scale Economics: Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction in Northeastern Thailand

Under what conditions does economic growth benefit the poor? One way to answer this question is to identify and compare positive and negative outlier areas, those that experience greater and lesser poverty reduction, respectively, compared to what was anticipated given their levels of economic growth. The more similar these areas, the more leverage there is to unearth the factors that allow the poor to benefit from growth. In this paper, we employ an inductive approach to glean possible pathways out of poverty from two highly similar underdeveloped neighboring provinces in northeastern Thailand. Using extensive fieldwork and interviews, we explore factors that can account for one province reducing poverty at a quicker pace than expected, even as the other failed to channel its faster growth into significant poverty reduction. Our study finds that in Surin province, because a strong network of local NGOs was working closely with provincial leadership, national policies that targeted the poor found fertile ground and thrived. Small-scale, low-tech, rural-based initiatives including organic rice, handicraft production, and rural tourism helped drive initially high levels of poverty down. Though many in Si-Saket also pursued many of these initiatives, they were structured in ways that promoted economic growth but largely prevented poor farmers from benefitting. Further research can examine whether this kind of “micro-oriented” path to rapid rural poverty reduction is useful in other contexts.

Present status of production and martketing of papaya for unripe consumption in Northeastern Thailand

A questionnaire-based survey was made of 800 papaya growers in 8 provinces in northeastern Thailand in January to December 2014. The results showed that most of the growers were female, aged over 30, and educated to primary school level. They had an average of 11–15 years experience growing papaya. Most (72%) grew papaya on mixed plantations. Larger monocrop plantations were found mainly in Kalasin and Mukdahan Provinces. Both household and hired labor was used. The most popular cultivars were ‘Khaeg Nuan’ and ‘Yellow Krang.’ Most farmers saved their own seed and propagated papaya by seed, starting in plastic bag containers. A planting space of 1.7 x 1.7 m was commonly used on large plantations while on some of the mixed farms a wider planting space of 2 x 2 to 3 x 3 m was used. Most farmers used both chemical and organic fertilizer and over 75% relied on rain water for irrigation. They used both mechanical and chemical methods for weed control and pest control. The pest problems reported were red spider mites, aphids, mealy bugs, coccids, worms and snails. The most serious disease problem was Papaya Ring Spot Virus. As for production costs, in the pre-harvest period land rental accounted for the greatest proportion of costs for small-scale farmers and labor accounted for the least proportion of costs. During the harvest period, the highest costs for small-scale farmers were for the irrigation system, and the lowest were for chemical fertilizer. The large-scale farmers had the highest overall costs for chemical fertilizer. In all 8 provinces surveyed, the majority of growers (88%) sold their papaya in unripe form and none of them sold papaya to factories for processing. The prices paid to farmers for papaya were the highest in January, April and November and the lowest in July, February and August. Farm gate prices were higher in Kalasin and Nakhon Ratchasima than in the other provinces.