Provenance Of Marbles Research Articles

A Holistic Isotopic and Mineralogical Investigation of Ancient Thasos Theatre: Technology and Provenance of Thasos Marbles

The Stable Isotope Unit of the National Centre of Scientific Research and the Ephorate of Kavala and Thasos collaborated on a project to investigate construction materials from the Ancient Theatre on Thasos Island, which was funded by NSRF European funds (2007-2013 and 2014-2020). Bulk samples of marble were collected to determine their provenance, technology, degradation features, and mechanical and physicochemical properties, with the ultimate goal of developing a conservation plan. By utilizing novel scientific techniques, the research team was able to date constructions discovered within excavations and establish remedial and preventive conservation plans using marble technology. The samples were characterized in terms of their isotopic, chemical, and mineralogical composition. Additionally, extended physicochemical and mechanical testing was applied to estimate the current condition of the Ancient Thasos Theatre. The 13C and 18O isotopic composition of the calcitic marbles was analysed to determine the environmental conditions during calcite formation, making it possible to define the marble provenance. Compositional and morphological analyses were achieved using energy-dispersive X-ray analysis by scanning electron microscopy, while the mineralogical phases were detected using X-ray diffraction and petrographic (polarized optical microscopy) analysis. Mechanical testing according to European Standards was achieved through the examination of compressive tensile strength and grain size distribution.

Scientific investigation on the provenance of marble of free-standing sculptures from the archaeological museum of Kavala/northern Greece

Scientific investigation on the provenance of marble of free-standing sculptures from the archaeological museum of Kavala/northern Greece

A Multianalytical Approach to Identifying the White Marbles Used in Roman Imperial Sculptures from Tarraco (Hispania)

A selection of the most outstanding white marble sculptures from Tarraco has been archaeometrically studied to know more about the marble sources and their respective artistic workshops. All are imperial portraits of the 2nd century AD (Trajan, Hadrian, Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius) and a thoracata bust assigned to Hadrian, found on display at the National Archaeological Museum of Tarragona (MNAT). The well-established multimethod approach, combining petrography, cathodoluminescence, C and O isotopes and Sr and Mn trace element composition, has revealed the use of different very fine- to fine-grained marbles of the highest quality exploited in classical times. In contrast to what was thought until now, in which all the pieces had been assigned to Luni-Carrara, this present study identifies the use of two varieties of the recently discovered site of Göktepe near Aphrodisias and Paros-lychnites marbles, being Carrara, in minority. This study confirms the importance of strontium concentration and the contribution of cathodoluminescence to distinguish Göktepe from Carrara marble, while carbon and oxygen isotopes were crucial for the identification of Cycladic marble. Finally, in line with recent published interdisciplinary studies, the marble provenance forces us to rethink the discourse on the use of marble, its sculptural workshops and its distribution in this temporal context.

The challenge of a successful discrimination of ancient marbles (part IV): A databank for the white marbles from the region of Ephesos

The data presented in the “Supplementary Material” are intended to supply a databank for future marble provenance analysis of artefacts to be checked against Ephesian marbles. For the sake of comparability, the methods of analysis of a sample to be investigated have to be in strict compliance with the analytical methods that were used for the preparation of this databank. In a first step it is shown that there are several different types of Ephesian marbles due to their different geologic sources. These various types of Ephesian marbles are characterised and it is shown that they can be separated by the use of a combination of different variables analysed thus the isotopic overlap can be largely reduced and an intra-site discrimination is possible. Using this multi method approach it is furthermore possible to largely tell apart the Ephesian marbles from other similar medium-grained marbles used in Antiquity all over the Roman Empire. Though not considered to be “white marbles”, the analytical data for the Ephesian Greco Scritto marble from the area of Hasançavuşlar some 20 km NE of Ephesos are presented in order to enable a future user to discriminate against similar grey mottled marbles from Cap de Garde or from Prokonessos.

The use of geochemical methods to pinpoint the origin of ancient white marbles

“Multi-method-approach” has now been for many years the buzzword in marble provenance analysis. Nevertheless a true combination of the results of different analytical methods is rarely applied in the sense of the combined simultaneous use of a large number of analytically obtained numerical variables. It is demonstrated here that the combination of data from isotope analysis, chemical data, and data from the chemical analysis of inclusion fluids of an artefact and of course in combination with a corresponding database enhances substantially the accuracy of marble provenance analysis. It is explicitly pointed out that the unchallenged collection of data of the chemical composition of marbles from different sources (and different analytical procedures) most probably implies severe differences in their comparability. Exemplarily presented is the nearly perfect discrimination of the most important fine-grained marbles and furthermore the possibility of the intra-site discrimination of the three Carrara districts and the assignment of two portrait heads to the Carrara Torano quarries.

Provenance Analysis of Marbles by Combination of Cathodoluminescence Spectroscopy and Electron Microprobe Analyses—Methodological Comments

Various marbles from historic quarries of the Czech Republic were examined by means of cathodoluminescence (CL) spectroscopy (quantitative data) to determine the possible inclusion of the method in marble provenance studies. The methodology used was based on a combination of electron microprobe analysis (Ca, Mg, Fe and Mn composition) and CL spectroscopy (intensity) of calcite and dolomite grains of the marbles studied. Several statistical techniques were applied to the CL-spectra to find the most effective way of characterization of the CL-spectra for provenance discrimination. The combination of Mg-admixture of calcite and position of the maximum (i.e., centre) of a single Gaussian curve was revealed to be the most discriminative dependence of the marbles studied.

Correlation of magnetic resonance (EPR, ssNMR) parameters and crystal-microstrain in marbles as a tool to probe their provenance.

Marbles constitute a significant family of materials, for antiquities, as well as modern constructions. Herein, we have studied Greek marbles, using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) spectroscopies, focusing on their structural microenvironment. Spin-Hamiltonian parameters derived from EPR spectra of naturally occurring 55Mn2+ (S = 5/2, I = 5/2) atoms in marbles, were studied as structural-probes. EPR data at 300 K provide a library of 55Mn2+ zero-field-splitting parameters (E, D). The effect of temperature (300 up to 700 K) on 55Mn2+-ZFS (E, D) and the strain of the D-tensor (Dstrain) was studied by high-temperature EPR spectroscopy. The EPR data, combined with 13C-ssNMR, provide detailed physicochemical information of the calcite and dolomite crystal phases in the marbles. In parallel, we have analyzed the lattice-microstrain (ε0) of the marbles' crystallites using high-resolution XRD data. Analysis of the correlation between the D-values of Mn2+ centers and (ε0)-XRD, reveals trends that reflect the provenance of the marbles. In this context, we discuss the correlation between the D-values of Mn2+ centers and (ε0)-microstrain as a novel tool to elucidate the provenance of marbles.

Marble Provenance Investigation of the Head of Alexander the Great and a Hand Fragment from Ancient Nysa-Scythopolis, Israel

Marble Provenance Investigation of the Head of Alexander the Great and a Hand Fragment from Ancient Nysa-Scythopolis, Israel

Archaeometric investigations on marble provenance of two statues from the newly uncovered Roman bath at the center of the historical Amman, Jordan

This research investigates the quarry origin of the white marble used to sculpt two draped female statues found in the newly uncovered Roman bath at the center of the ancient city of Rabbath-Ammon (Philadelphia, Amman). It aims to shed more light on the trade and origin of the marble used for sculpture at the city during its prosperous period (2nd −3rd c. AD). The use of macroscopic examination and multiple analytical techniques (X-ray diffractometry, optical microscopy, C13 and O18 isotope mass spectrometry) showed that both statues were carved out of the dolomitic Thasian-3 marble quarries at Cape Vathy, Thasos Island, Greece. The stylistic features of the two statues that were common during the late 2nd and early 3rd c. AD and the wide use and distribution of this marble in Jordan during the 2nd and 3rd c. AD might be an indication to date them to the same period of the Roman times. The assigned date concords with the time of expansion, large construction activity and prosperity of the city and the use of imported and luxury stones to carve statues and embellish the structures of the city.

Geochemical and petrographic investigation of the provenance of white marble decorative elements from the Roman Villa Armira in south-eastern Bulgaria

The paper presents evidence of Roman marble production in the Balkan region, specifically from the south-eastern Rhodope Mountain area (modern Bulgaria) and Armira. Although the Roman marble trade and production in antiquity are well known in Prokonnesos, Thasos, and several other production sites, marble deposits from inland Thrace have received far less attention. In 2018–2019, a systematic survey of south-eastern Bulgaria (Roman Thrace) was carried out by our team in collaboration with the National Archaeological Institute with Museum in Bulgaria. White marble quarries and outcrops were investigated in situ with the goal of characterizing the macroscopic qualities of the stone. Quarry samples were collected and analyzed through various techniques—petrography, isotopic, and chemical analyses—and compared with the architectural decorative marble and artifacts from the Roman villa at Armira. We demonstrate that the geochemical and petrographic features of these samples indicate a marble provenance restricted to a few selected sources. We conclude that the local marble from the Armira and Kamilski Dol quarries was widely used for the complete architectural program of the Roman villa of Armira.

Meter reliefs from Ephesos and the Obizzi Collection (KHM Wien). Archaeometric considerations on the production and trade of small-format marble objects in the Greek world

The Sanctuary of Meter, on the north slope of the Panayırdağ in Ephesos, Asia Minor, has revealed a rather large number of Meter reliefs which were originally placed in small niches cut into the marble/limestone bedrock of the Panayırdağ hill. The objects date from the Late Classical to the Early Hellenistic period (i.e. 4th-3th cent. BC). The marble provenance analysis of a group of these reliefs, now located in the Museum of Selçuk in Turkey, proves that the marble originates from different Ephesian quarries. Using various methods including stable isotope analysis (C13 and O18), and multi-trace element analysis by ICP-MS, in combination with petrography, identifies the provenance of these votive plates, and the workshop for their production in Ephesos. A further investigation of the Meter Relief I 1108 from the Art History Museum in Vienna [Kunsthistorisches Museum of Vienna (KHM)] showed that this material also originates from the Ephesos II group quarries, linking this object to the Ephesian workshop/production area. Furthermore, recent investigations on Meter reliefs from different regions, now in the Art History Museum in Vienna, showed the use of Dokimeion marble already in the Hellenistic era.

The challenge of a successful discrimination of ancient marbles (part III): A databank for Aphrodisias, Carrara, Dokimeion, Göktepe, Hymettos, Parian Lychnites and Pentelikon

This paper deals with practical problems arising when investigating the provenance of ancient white marbles and assigning them to their original quarries or at least regions of origin. Stable isotope analysis as the method of implementation of marble provenance analysis is widely accepted, but it became apparent in recent decades that the selectivity of discrimination is very poor when the procedure is confined to this method. To overcome this problem a multi-method approach is introduced here including also trace element analysis and the analysis of inclusion fluids as additional variables. On this basis it is shown here that marbles defying separation on the basis of isotopes alone can be differentiated with very good success when using further chemical variables and a multivariate statistical approach for the evaluation of the results. This includes, for instance, the problems in distinguishing between Pentelic and Dokimeian marbles or intra-site separation of the latter. The analytical data of more than 400 quarry samples (each with 26 analytical variables) are given in the “Supplementary Online Material” to provide a databank for the application of this approach.

The San Giovanni Baptistery in Florence (Italy): Assessment of the State of Conservation of Surfaces and Characterization of Stone Materials

During the last restoration campaign of the Baptistery of San Giovanni in Florence (Italy), the assessment of the state of conservation of external surfaces was performed, with a multi-analytical approach, in order to support the conservation and restoration treatments. Black crusts, red staining, sulphation, and organic patinas were identified. Moreover, a complete characterization of marble cladding, bricks, and mortars was carried out. A geochemical and minero-petrographic approach was used in order to classify and assess the provenance of marbles, and define raw materials and technologies of the production for bricks and mortars. Provenances from Italy (Carrara and Lasa marbles) and from Greece (Hymettus and Pentelicum marbles) were identified and attributed to different construction phases, restoration interventions, and re-use of ancient materials. For mortars, the obtained data suggested the use of local materials and traditional technologies for the production. Overall, two different minero-petrographic typologies were identified for the analyzed bricks.

Mineralogical Insights to Identify Göktepe Marble in the Sculptural Program of Quinta Das Longas Villa (Lusitania)

This archaeometric study is focused on the marble used in a group of fragmented sculptures found at the Roman villa of Quinta das Longas (Elvas, Portugal). Dating from the 4th century AD, the pieces are of remarkable quality and correspond to ideal and mythological figures from several iconographic cycles. The numerous fragments, all of very fine-grained white marble, are associated with the ornamentation of an impressive nymphaeum of the villa. Their high level of sculpture technique and style, the models followed and their similar typology to other well-known parallels raise the hypothesis of being linked with Aphrodisian workshops. Using a well-established multi-method approach, with Optical microscopy, X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRPD), qualitative and quantitative cathodoluminescence (CL) by CL-Optical and CL-SEM, and stable C and O isotopic and trace element analytical techniques (IRMS and ICP-AES), together with complementary parameters obtained from electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and 87Sr/86Sr isotopes, the marble provenance can be identified with certainty. The results all point to the best quality of white Göktepe marble, confirming the stylistic connection to the ancient Carian sculptors.

The challenge of a successful discrimination of ancient marbles (part II): A databank for the Alpine marbles

Numerical data on scientific analytical characteristics of the Alpine marbles are presented in this paper in order to provide a database for future use when investigating artefacts of that region. The Alpine marbles used already in Roman times can be subdivided into two major groups. Those of the first group, bound to the “Koralpe-Wölz-System”, are medium to coarsegrained white marbles usually of good to excellent quality. Well-known quarries of this group are e.g. Gummern or the Slovenian Pohorje/Bachern marbles. The degree of discrimination of these marbles from each other is very bad when only stable isotope analysis is applied. However, by using discrimination analysis and computing a large set of analytical variables a separation of the datafields of these quarries can be improved considerably.The marbles of the second group from the “Drauzug-Gurktal-System”, the “Pörtschach marbles”, are visually indistinguishable but they are significantly different in their petrological and chemical characteristics. Thus they can safely be assigned to their source.The data presented in the “Supplementary Material” are intended to supply a databank for further marble provenance analysis of artefacts to be checked against Alpine marbles. For the sake of comparability, the methods of analysis of a sample to be investigated have to be in strict compliance with the analytical methods that were used for the preparation of this databank.

The muses and other statues of the Eastern Roman Baths of Gerasa, Jordan (2018 Campaign): Form and provenance

The Eastern Roman Baths of the Deacapolis Gerasa, Jordan, represents one of the largest and best preserved Roman baths in the entire Bilad Al-Sham. It was built during the second half of the 2nd century CE and adorned by sculptures of imported precious marble, some have inscribed bases. The 2018 excavations11The Great East Baths of Gerasa were excavated during the 2018 campaign (September 1st – October 17th) by the joint project of the French Archaeological Mission to Jerash (MAFJ), the Department of Antiquities of Jordan (DoA) and the German Jordanian University (GJU). The marble sculptures under investigation were found by the French team and the participation of local workmen from the Gaza Refugee Camp under the supervision of the DoA representative and Dr. Thomas Lepaon, the then MAFJ director. A team from the DoA and students from the GJU worked simultaneously on the conservation, restoration and presentation of the sculptures under the guidance of Professor Dr. Thomas M. Weber-Karyotakis and the Italian conservator Franco Sciorilli. This team arranged a close cooperation with Professor Dr. Khaled al-Bashaireh from the Yarmouk University to investigate the marble provenance of the sculptures. unearthed a group of well preserved statues, although headless or broken, including six Muses (Melpomene, Clio, Urania, Erato and two as yet unidentified), Cybele, Dionysus, female head, draped female, etc. This study sheds light on ten statues of the new collection, and investigates their provenance by applying combined scientific analytical techniques associated with the recently published databases on the ancient marble quarries of the Mediterranean. The results showed that the six muses were most likely carved out of Pentelic marble (Mount Pentelikon, Attica, Greece) probably in one order from the same workshop, the enthroned Cybele statue is of Thassos-3 marble (Vathy-Saliara district, Thassos Island, Greece), the Dionysus statue and the female marble head are of Proconnesus-1 marble (Marmara Island, Turkey), and the torso of the draped female statue is of Paros-2 marble (Lakkoi, Valley of Chorodaki, Paros Island, Greece). The results agree with previous studies of provenancing sculptures uncovered at Gerasa, and other sites in Jordan and the Levant. They support the suggestion that Lakkoi produced medium-grained marble variety for carving out statues. The results give more evidence about the high state of the art of Gerasa during the Roman period.

Delos Archaeological Marbles: A Preliminary Geochemistry‐Based Quarry Provenance Study

This paper presents for the first time chemical data on the ancient (Antiquity period) marble quarries of Delos Island and some architectural marbles from its famous and exceptionally well‐preserved archaeological site. Delos geological substratum is mostly composed of granite, including very few decametric marble enclaves. However, ancient Delian architecture is dominated by gneiss and marbles. A large quantity of marble had thus to be imported from neighbouring Cycladic Islands and continental Greece. Their provenances remain mostly unknown. Several analytical methods have been developed in archaeometry for years to determine the origin of marbles, but they are generally destructive. This paper reports a methodology based on a hand‐held portable X‐ray fluorescence (pXRF) analyser to detect major and trace elements often used in provenance studies. Drawbacks of using those elements for marble provenance and analytical limitations attached to portable instruments were frequently discussed. Here the usefulness of pXRF for marble provenance research was tested in association with principal component analysis (PCA). Two artefacts of presumed Delian origin were selected and the results showed that one of them came undoubtedly from a Delian quarry while the other one was not of local origin. This protocol appeared to be a powerful tool when conventional destructive analyses are precluded.

A New Database of the Quantitative Cathodoluminescence of the Main Quarry Marbles Used in Antiquity

Quantitative cathodoluminescence (CL) has rarely been applied for the archaeometric studies concerning marble provenance, despite its potential. This paper develops the method and provides a new database of the parameters obtained from the main marble quarries used in antiquity. With a total number of 473 marble samples from ten districts of the central and eastern Mediterranean, it is the first database on quantitative CL, with the additional advantage of being the same samples that have already characterized by other conventional techniques and that are available in the literature. Focused on the measurements of the intensity peaks at the UV and visible spectra, registered by a spectrometer coupled to a scanning electron microscope (CL-SEM), the representative values are plotted on different useful diagrams to be applied in the identification of marble provenance studies, as a complementary tool of other analyses.

Improved methodology for identification of Göktepe white marble and the understanding of its use: A comparison with Carrara marble

The provenance of marbles used for ancient statuary and architecture is of utmost importance for archaeologists, art historians and archaeometrists. The aim of this paper is to provide a comprehensive characterisation of the white marble exploited in antiquity in Göktepe (Muğla Province, Turkey) to increase the reliability for identifying this marble in ancient artefacts. A campaign of interdisciplinary archaeological and geological fieldwork undertaken by the Marmora Asiatica project is based on a multi-method approach and on a representative set of samples used for the archaeometric analyses. Petrographic investigation showed that the Göktepe marble is more variable with regard to fabrics and grain size than previously suggested, whereas it is generally non-luminescent and dolomite-free. Stable C and O isotope and elemental analyses confirmed the results reported so far. We also report, for the first time for Göktepe white marble, the results of Sr isotope measurements, which in combination with elemental ratios, e.g. Sr/Mg and Mn/Sr, and δ18O values, greatly improve the discrimination among Göktepe, Carrara and other fine-grained white marbles. Applicability of these proxies was tested on artefacts from Hadrian's Villa, for which Carrara and Goktepe provenance had been proposed. The paper also reports new archaeological findings and results of estimates of stone extracted from the quarries, which allowed for a recontextualization of the significance of quarries at Göktepe. High-resolution topographic measurements, performed for the first time with the use of a 3-D laser scanner, combined with geological field study, allowed for precise calculation of the volume of the white variety extracted in antiquity. Estimates of 17000 m3 is almost a half less than previously suggested. Moreover, a careful study of the existing literature showed that in some instances assignment of white marble artefacts to the Göktepe quarries may not be accurate. Verification of provenance for those problematic artefacts and a more reliable identification of Göktepe marbles in the future can be achieved by application of the set of analyses proposed in this work, which has a higher discrimination potential.

Methodological Approach to Reconstructing Lost Monuments from Archaeological Findings: The San Francesco di Castelletto Church in Genoa

Throughout history, natural hazards, wars, political changes and urban evolution have contributed to the obliteration of outstanding monuments. The study of their remains, frequently recovered as archaeological findings, can be the basis for a reconstruction of the lost structures, by way of their size, function, decoration and stylistic evolution. The present study developed a multidisciplinary approach to gather and interpret archaeological fragments and archive sources, in order to gain as much information as possible on “lost monuments”. The approach was tested with remnants (i.e., several hundreds of marble fragments found during archaeological excavations) of the monastic complex of San Francesco di Castelletto (Genoa), which was demolished after the Napoleonic suppressions. A preliminary organisation of the sample set was attained through cataloguing shape, size, and decoration. After this, a comparison with similar complexes still existing in Genoa allowed the inference of the age and specific ornamental functions for the majority of the pieces. Surface analysis, carried out in situ (portable microscope) and on micro-samples (petrographic analysis and SEM-EDS), allowed the characterisation of the materials (e.g., assessing marble provenance and identifying pigments). As a whole, the method evolved into an operational protocol, which helped both the organisation of the archaeological findings and the reconstruction of unknown phases of the lost monument.