Protracted Refugee Situations Research Articles

Search for Durable Solution to the Rohingya Refugee Crisis in Bangladesh

Abstract The Rohingya, a Muslim minority living mainly in the northern Rakhine state of Myanmar, are considered illegal immigrants from Bangladesh, despite the fact that they have settled in Myanmar for hundreds of years. Myanmar recognized 135 ethnic groups under the 1982 Citizenship Act which excludes the Rohingya as an ethnic group in Myanmar and they became stateless. Myanmar Security Forces have committed grave violation of human rights against Rohingya. The latest attack in 2017 was more heinous than in 1978, 1992, and 2012. As of June 2018, The Rohingya refugee in Bangladesh was portrayed as a protracted refugee situation. In many protracted refugee situations, a durable solution such as local integration, resettlement and voluntary repatriations needed to be implemented to end the prolonged displacement. The aim of this paper is to discuss the most feasible durable solutions to be implemented to repatriate Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh.

Parenting and mental health in protracted refugee situations: A systematic review

BackgroundRefugees' parenting behaviour is profoundly influenced by their mental health, which is, in turn, influenced by their situation of displacement. Our research presents the first systematic review on parenting and mental health in protracted refugee situations, where 78% of all refugees reside. MethodsWe pre-registered our protocol and screened documents in 22 languages from 10 electronic databases, reports by 16 international humanitarian organisations and region-specific content from the top 100 websites for each of the 72 countries that ‘host’ protracted refugees. Our criteria were empirical papers reporting parenting and parental mental health data on refugees who are in a protracted refugee situation. Studies including only internally displaced or stateless persons were excluded. ResultsA total of 18,125 documents were screened and 30 studies were included. We identified a universal pathway linking macro-level stressors in protracted refugee situations, such as movement restrictions and documentation issues, to symptoms of depression and anxiety, which, in turn, led to negative parenting practices. Additionally, culture-specific pathways were observed in the way parental mental health and parenting were expressed. Situational (e.g., overcrowding) and relational factors (e.g., spousal dynamics) modulated both of these pathways. Biases in the research included the over-representation of specific protracted refugee situations, overreliance on self-reported data, and a heavy focus on mothers while neglecting fathers and other caregivers. Longitudinal research is needed to clarify the directionality and causality between specific macro-level stressors in a given protracted refugee situation and parental mental health and practices. Refugees were rarely consulted or involved in the design of research concerning their parenting and parental mental health. ConclusionIn recognising the existing links between protracted refugee situations, parental mental health, and parenting, our systematic review calls for a shift in thinking: from focusing solely on the micro aspects that affect ‘refugee parenting’ to understanding and tackling the broader macro-level stressors that drive them. We urge larger and long-term research efforts that consider diverse protracted refugee situations, greater investment in science communication and diplomacy with governments, and stronger implementation of durable solutions by states to alleviate the roots of refugee parents' distress and negative parenting practices.

Protracted refugee situations and the shrinking durable solutions: could there be a ray of hope in local solutions?

Protracted refugee situations and the shrinking durable solutions: could there be a ray of hope in local solutions?

Refugees as Entrepreneurs? A Challenge to HDP Programmes

ABSTRACT Protracted refugee situations in territories of war or natural hazards challenge the logic of the humanitarian-development-peace (HDP) nexus that inspires liberal humanitarianism. The organised expression of that nexus is the so-called ‘integrated approach’ in which humanitarian aid, development aid and peacebuilding are intertwined in missions aimed at promoting a durable peace. The experiences of camps for Palestinian and Syrian refugees in Jordan and of South Sudanese and Congolese refugees in Uganda question some basic assumptions of the HDP programmes. In the last two decades, the policies adopted in these locations show a two-fold reconfiguration of the HDP liberal programme: first, the aim of containing humanitarian crises locally, in the peripheries, thereby preventing their adverse effects spreading to the core of the international system; second, a focus on refugees’ capacity to become more resilient and entrepreneurial in order to overcome their vulnerable condition. Overall, this so-called neoliberal approach to humanitarianism with its focus on containment and individual entrepreneurship-inspired resilience has moved away from its liberal configuration as part of a systemic reconfiguration of local social fabric.

Environmental peacebuilding in protracted refugee situations: The camp, refugee–host conflict and pathways to peaceful co-existence

Environmental peacebuilding in protracted refugee situations: The camp, refugee–host conflict and pathways to peaceful co-existence

The African Union’s Response to Forced Migration: Reinforcing the Nexus between Peace and Security and Refugee/IDP Protection

Summary Africa is home to millions of displaced persons–IDPs and refugees–a trend that has its genesis in the pre-independence armed struggles and is currently perpetuated by internal conflicts that plague most parts of the continent. Although the challenge has been a permanent phenomenon since the days of the Organisation of African Unity, the continental organization, now the African Union, has failed to craft a response strategy that addresses both forced displacement and the conundrum of protracted refugee situations. This article argues for a policy reformulation that situates the problem of displacement within the core of Africa’s peace and security framework (the APSA). It posits that this approach addresses both causes of forced displacement and the welfare of the displaced. At a policy level, the approach permeates good governance, peace, security and economic strategies of the Union.

Context Matters: The Implications of the Mode of Service Provision for Structural and Relational Integration of Refugees in Ghana and Ethiopia

Abstract The ever-increasing protracted refugee situations globally have put local integration of refugees into hosting societies high on the international agenda. While recent international frameworks have called for a deeper integration of refugees through the mainstreaming of refugee service provision into national service provision systems, little attention has been paid to the structures and arrangements—the so-called opportunity structures—specifically to how these can either promote or impede integration into host countries. We focus on the mode of social service provision to refugees and how this shapes the context of refugee integration in Ghana and Ethiopia taking into account the implications for structural and relational integration of refugees. We hold the view that mainstreaming service provision to refugees in camps into national systems does not necessarily lead to better refugee integration outcomes. Differences in the quality-of-service provision between humanitarian actors and hosting countries have the potential to determine integration outcomes.

Education for Refugees: Building Durable Futures?

Abstract Education is one of the key tools of nation-building, as it aims to create future citizens. Yet what happens in seemingly ‘futureless’ contexts where refugees cannot access even social membership, let alone legal citizenship? In this introduction to our special issue on education for refugees, we explore the aspirations and conceptions of possible futures that students, teachers, governments, international non-governmental organizations (INGOs), and funders have when they promote and pursue education as the solution to the liminal position that refugees in protracted refugee situations find themselves in. Based on insights from the articles, we analyse disconnects between aspirations for education and realities of access to quality education and to opportunities after completing education. We argue that to address these disconnects requires us to move beyond temporal and spatial binaries—present vs. future, here vs. there—that are so common in refugee education discourse and policy. Our suggestion is to draw on and support stakeholders’ work, powerfully exemplified in this special issue, to contribute to improved conditions through pedagogies, practices, and policies that address these binaries.

Handwashing among caregivers of young children in a protracted and complex refugee and immigration context: a mixed methods study on the Thai-Myanmar border.

Protracted refugee situations create complex contexts that present significant health risks for young children. Effective hand hygiene practices by caregivers can reduce respiratory infections and diarrhoeal disease, the two largest contributors to mortality among children between 1 month and 5 years of age. This study documented handwashing patterns and access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) infrastructure among caregivers of young children living along the Thai-Myanmar border, one of the world's most protracted and complex refugee and immigration contexts. It also examined the association between handwashing and socio-demographic variables and captured participants' explanations for when and how hands are washed. The study broadened the scope of previous research by also including the large number of caregivers living outside formal camps. Caregivers of children attending 11 preschools in Tak province, Thailand participated in a mixed-methods cross-sectional study. Quantitative questionnaire data (n = 384) were supplemented by a thematic analysis of data from in-depth interviews (n = 9). Fewer than half the caregivers reported routinely washing their hands before preparing meals or after using the latrine/toilet. Fewer than one-in-five routinely used soap in these situations. Interviewees explained that handwashing was only necessary when a substance could be felt or seen, in which case wiping with a cloth or a rinsing with water were sufficient to clean hands. However, their explanations also suggested some potential avenues for culturally appropriate and feasible interventions to improve hand hygiene. The results confirmed previous research on the multi-dimensional barriers to good hand hygiene in protracted refugee situations and other low-resource settings. Additional investment to overcome shortages in the infrastructure necessary to support good hand hygiene and creative means of drawing on and developing human capital will be necessary to realize the potential hand hygiene holds for reducing ill-health and mortality among young children living in these contexts.

Education for what? The politics of education for Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh

AbstractThe massive influx of Rohingyas has become one of the world's worst humanitarian and human rights crises. The Bangladesh government does not have any domestic or international regulations to set up an administrative process to address the issue of Rohingya refugees. Recently, Bangladesh and Myanmar initiated the repatriation of around 3000 Rohingyas. Yet, the repatriation process has not been successful as none of the Rohingya agreed to return to Myanmar without citizenship rights and security. Against this backdrop, this study explores whether education can act as a solution to integrate Rohingya refugees into mainstream society in Bangladesh. Applying purposive sampling, primary data was collected through semi‐structured interviews, key informant interviews, and telephone interviews. Data analysis was performed through conversation analysis. The findings reveal that the integration of Rohingya refugees through education is a far‐reaching dream as refugee management and education policies do not permit the integration of Rohingya refugees into mainstream society in Bangladesh. Rohingya refugees have demanded education as their right to develop their self‐respect and dignity. In contrast, the Bangladesh government viewed education as a relief program rather than development and integration. This article supports the claim of academics that the Bangladeshi government should provide education to Rohingya refugee children from a development perspective to protect and ensure their self‐respect and dignity.Related ArticlesByrne, Jennifer. 2016. “Contextual Identity among Liberian Refugees in Ghana: Identity Salience in a Protracted Refugee Situation.” Politics & Policy 44(4): 751–82. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12169.Harel‐Shalev, Ayelet. 2009. “Lingual and Educational Policy toward ‘Homeland Minorities’ in Deeply Divided Societies: India and Israel as Case Studies.” Politics & Policy 37(5): 951–70. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1747‐1346.2009.00206.x/abstract.Ravi, Chaitanya. 2021. “The 1971 Bangladesh War and Policy Lessons for Climate Refugee Management in South Asia.” Politics & Policy 49(1): 248–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12392.

Refugee Education in Bangladesh: A Nation-State Paradox

This article critically analyzes the politically driven exclusion of Rohingya refugees in the national education system of Bangladesh. By employing realist humanitarianism theory, this study examines the inducement of discrimination against refugees in education and the political factors that have influenced such policy choices and formulation in Bangladesh. Qualitative research involving 35 semi-structured interviews produced in-depth information on key informants' experiences, perceptions, and suggestions on refugee education in Bangladesh. This study revealed that excluding refugees from education was a politically plotted decision, and the reason for such exclusion persisted until now because prolonged discrimination against the refugees created local myths about refugees’ eligibility for their human rights to education. The findings of this study provide insights into both academic research and policy analysis in the field of refugee education by highlighting a protracted refugee situation in Bangladesh that political exclusion can create the ambiance to nullify refugees’ human rights to education. The study recommends weighing refugee voices in refugee program design, broader consultation among humanitarian agencies, and policy review to allow refugees to receive formal, official education.

Solastalgia and nostalgia: the role of emotional bonds to place in refugee and host community interactions

ABSTRACT While sustainable solutions to protracted refugee situations remain elusive, conditions for refugees and their host communities can deteriorate. Drawing from environmental psychology, we apply a place attachment framework to analyse wellbeing and refugee-host interactions in protracted situations to inform alternative interventions. Based in the Bekaa Valley in Lebanon, we carried out qualitative interviews on place attachment with Syrian and Palestinian refugees from Syria who had fled the conflict in Syria, and their Lebanese and Palestinian host communities. Results show a rural host population with strong place identity experiencing, we suggest, solastalgia due to refugee-related place change. Strong place identity contributed to anti-refugee sentiment as a form of place protective behaviour. Syrian refugees had no secure base in Lebanon but rather nostalgia for Syria. This was driven, in part, by immobility preventing meaningful interactions with locals in surrounding areas. Palestinian refugees from Syria, doubly displaced, were increasingly defined by the Palestinian dimension of their identity. Palestinian refugee hosts articulated a lack of a secure base in Lebanon but also a sense of loss at the changes occurring. A place attachment framing highlights pathways to ameliorate some of the mental health impacts of protracted displacement and remove barriers to social cohesion.

Rethinking solutions for protracted refugee situation: A case study of the Buduburam refugee camp closure in Ghana

Despite the passage of three decades since their forced migration, many former Liberian refugees remain confined within the Buduburam refugee camp in Ghana. Recent tensions between the former refugees and the Ghanaian government have arisen due to the proposed closure of the camp. In light of these circumstances, this paper reexamines the preferred durable solution sought by the former refugees and demonstrates its relevance within their current protracted situation in Ghana. The study adopts a comprehensive approach that combines data from past interviews, a survey conducted amongst former refugees, and insights derived from a rapid scoping review of the existing literature. By synthesising these various sources of information, this paper sheds light on the nuanced perspectives and ideas expressed by the former refugees. Furthermore, it explores how the findings from these data sources have shaped the present state of affairs within the Buduburam refugee camp. The study reveals that a significant majority (∼77%) of the former refugees expressed a strong preference for resettlement in a third advanced country, driven not only by security concerns but also by their aspirations for improved economic wellbeing. This preference for resettlement stands in contrast to the available solutions offered by governing institutions, which have contributed to the protracted nature of their situation. Nonetheless, there were marginal discrepancies in the inclination towards durable solutions among individuals, contingent upon their educational attainment (x2 = 30.452; p = 0.002) and marital status (x2 = 23.746; p = 0.022). Drawing on the available evidence and insights gained from the former refugees, this paper advocates for a more comprehensive bottom-up, multifactorial approach to the implementation of durable solutions for refugees. It emphasises the need for a more holistic and concurrent application of all viable solutions, right from the beginning of refugee settlement in host countries, to break the cycle of protracted displacement. By taking into account the persistent preferences and needs of the affected individuals, policymakers and governing institutions can work towards implementing durable solutions that address both the immediate and long-term aspirations of refugees, aiming to bring an end to the protracted refugee cycle once and for all.

Flowers in the dark: The contribution of rooftop urban agriculture to human well-being in the Ein El-Hilweh Refugee Camp, Lebanon

Securing the livelihoods of disadvantaged social groups such as refugees is a decisive part of sustainable development globally. In Lebanon, Palestinian and Syrian-Palestinian refugees are marginalized groups facing aggravating hardships in the light of the country's rising economic and political crises. Urban agriculture has become an increasingly popular tool for city residents to counteract economic instability and secure their livelihoods. This study explores the intersection between refugees in protracted displacement, urban agriculture, and sustainable livelihoods by analyzing the livelihood effects of rooftop urban agriculture for Palestinian women in Ein El-Hilweh, Lebanon's largest refugee camp. To this end, we applied a mixed-method approach combining a document analysis and a survey of ten female participants of an urban agricultural project in Ein El-Hilweh Camp, Lebanon. We analyzed data by an adapted Sustainable Livelihoods Framework. Our findings suggest that rooftop urban agriculture as an informal bottom-up strategy that contributes considerably to more sustainable livelihoods of Palestinian women and their families in the refugee camp by enabling them to develop natural and human capital as the basis for increasing their food security while protecting natural resources. Rooftop urban agriculture thus is a low-threshold tool for refugees in protracted displacement that enhances their well-being over the medium term. By providing novel data on the livelihoods of Palestinian urban gardeners in Lebanon, this study closes an empirical gap and offers entry points for further research. If scaled up, the initiative could catalyze social improvement in other protracted refugee situations in the Middle East and elsewhere.

A “Surrogate State” for Refugees in Greece

Abstract The rapid increase in the number of refugees arriving to Greece in 2015 and the subsequent moves by the European Union Member States to limit their secondary movement triggered what has been described as the “most expensive humanitarian response in history.” The European Commission, believing that Greece did not have the capacity to respond to the situation, directly funded international organisations, primarily the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and international non-governmental organisations to do so. The “care and maintenance model” at the core of UNHCR’s response to protracted refugee situations has been described as a “surrogate state,” complete with the territory, services, and citizens. This article aimed to examine whether this refugee response in Greece followed the “surrogate state” model which characterised interventions in other geographies, by studying UNHCR’s service provision, governance functions, perception of legitimacy, territorial presence and influence. This study shows that this refugee response was characterised by a degree of surrogacy that resembles the “surrogate states” observed in other refugee responses. The Greek government was marginalised during the response and abdicated a significant degree of responsibility to UNHCR. This negatively affected the quality of the response itself and the long-term welfare and prospects of refugees.

Rethinking ‘regional processing’ in Europe: lessons from the Comprehensive Plan of Action (CPA) for indochinese refugees

ABSTRACT Since the Syrian refugee crisis in 2015–2016, debate has persisted over the creation of more accessible legal pathways for asylum seekers to reach Europe, particularly during large-scale and protracted refugee situations. This has included the possibility of the European Union processing the protection claims of asylum seekers in transit countries or regions of origin before they reach Europe. Assuming that such arrangements are made without prejudice to the right to claim territorial asylum in Europe or elsewhere, in theory, regional processing could help reduce the risks associated with the onward movement of asylum seekers and migrants and facilitate more predictable movements of people during large-scale refugee situations. But what could or should a ‘regional processing’ framework entail for it to be compatible with international human rights law principles? This paper considers this question by drawing practical insights from the Comprehensive Plan of Action for Indochinese Refugees, which was the first international attempt to introduce region-wide processing during the Indochinese refugee crisis in the 1970s–1980s. Through an evaluation of the Plan, this paper explores how ‘regional processing’ might be re-conceptualised to expand protection pathways to Europe and inform a protection-orientated approach to international cooperation on asylum and migration.

The Rohingya Crisis in the Context of Sino-Indian Geopolitical Competition in Myanmar

The Rohingya people of Myanmar have been trapped in a protracted refugee situation for more than fifty years. Several complicated underlying factors have historically hindered a long-term resolution of the refugee issue. The refugee problem has political, religious, ethnic, and geo-strategic dimensions. This paper focuses on the regional geopolitical aspect of the Rohingya refugee crisis. Drawing upon secondary literature, the paper seeks to analyse the role of India and China in Myanmar. By exploring the nature of Sino-Indian geopolitical competition in Myanmar, the paper has tried to understand the contribution of such competition in the prolongation of the crisis.

When Do States Repatriate Refugees? Evidence from the Middle East

AbstractWhich conditions affect whether a state will choose to repatriate forcibly displaced populations residing within its borders? One of the most pressing issues related to the protracted Syrian refugee situation concerns the future of over 5 million Syrians who sought shelter in neighboring states. With host countries pursuing disparate strategies on Syrians’ return, the existing literature has yet to provide a framework that is able to account for variation on host states’ policies toward refugee repatriation. In this paper, we expand upon the concept of the refugee rentier state to theorize inductively upon the conditions shaping states’ policymaking on repatriation. We draw upon multi-sited fieldwork across the three major refugee host states in the Eastern Mediterranean (Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey) to establish that a refugee rentier state's strategy is driven by domestic political economy costs related to the hosting of refugee populations as well as its geostrategic interests vis-à-vis these refugees’ country of origin. Using a comparative case study approach, we note how a state is more likely to pursue a blackmailing strategy based on threats if it faces high domestic political economy costs and adopts an interventionist policy vis-à-vis the sending state, as in the case of Turkey. Otherwise, it is more likely to pursue a backscratching strategy based on bargains, as in the case of Lebanon and Jordan. We conclude with a discussion on how this framework sheds light on refugee host states’ repatriation policies on a global scale.

Queering Protracted Displacement: Lessons from Internally Displaced Persons in the Philippines

In this short paper, we apply a queer lens to challenge the current parameters of protracted refugee situations (PRS), as outlined in international legal instruments, by drawing on stories of internally displaced persons (IDPs) in the Philippines affected by the Zamboanga Siege in 2013. We argue that PRS is not a status that displaced individuals transition in and out of, and that the reliance on nation-states to implement international protections can exacerbate the already tenuous situations of IDPs. The perception of prolonged displacement lingers well beyond traditional durable solutions of return, local integration, and resettlement, shaping IDPs’ longing for home.

Displaced Selves: Older African Adults in Forced Migration

Abstract Ageing as a refugee in an unsettled life situation increases the need for identity management due to dramatic life changes. This qualitative study, influenced by phenomenology, focuses on the stories of older adults in protracted intra-African refugee situations and the continuity and discontinuity of their identities. In line with identity process theory, we portray identities as situationally accomplished through the interplay of how one defines oneself internally and how others define one from the outside. The data, analysed by using abductive thematic analysis, consist of five semi-structured interviews with refugees in protracted refugee situations in Nairobi. We argue that older age combined with protracted migratory experiences resulted in the study participants possessing a wide array of experiences, including many losses. These, including their pre-migratory experiences, formed a large repertoire of intra-psychic, interpersonal and intergroup coping strategies to rely on when reworking their identities.