Proton-driven Plasma Wakefield Acceleration Research Articles

Preliminary investigation of a Higgs factory based on proton-driven plasma wakefield acceleration

Abstract A Higgs Factory is considered the highest priority next collider project by the high-energy physics community. Very advanced designs based on radio-frequency cavities exist, and variations on this approach are still being developed. Recently, an option based on electron-bunch driven plasma wakefield acceleration has also been proposed. In this article, we discuss a further option based on proton-driven plasma wakefield acceleration. This option has significant potential advantages due to the high energy of the plasma wakefield driver, simplifying the plasma acceleration stage. Its success will depend on further developments in producing compact high-energy proton bunches at a high rate, which would also make possible a broad range of synergistic particle-physics research.

EARLI: design of a laser wakefield accelerator for AWAKE

Following the successful Run 1 experiment, the Advanced Proton Driven Plasma Wakefield Acceleration Experiment (AWAKE) Run2 experiment requires the design and implementation of a compact electron source. The “high-quality Electron Accelerator driven by a Reliable Laser wakefield for Industrial uses” (EARLI) project aims to design a stand-alone high-quality electron injector based on a laser wakefield accelerator (LWFA) as an alternative proposal to AWAKE’s baseline design of an X-band electron gun. This project is currently in the design phase, including simulations and experimental tests. Exhaustive beam physics studies for conventional accelerators are applied to LWFA physics.

Characteristics of betatron radiation in AWAKE Run 2 experiment

The oscillating relativistic electrons in the accelerating/focusing wakefields of plasma accelerators emit electromagnetic radiation known as betatron radiation (BR). The proton-driven plasma wakefield acceleration has been demonstrated in the Advanced Wakefield Experiment (AWAKE) at CERN; however, its accompanying radiation emission is less explored compared with those in the laser- and electron beam-driven plasma accelerators. In this paper, a detailed simulation study of BR in the AWAKE is presented. Considering the new set-up of the AWAKE Run 2 (2021–), the radiation emission from both the witness electron beam and the seeding electron beam is investigated using particle-in-cell simulations. The influence of radial size mismatch and misaligned off-axis injection on the witness beam dynamics, as well as the spectral features of the relevant BR are studied. These non-ideal electron injections are likely to occur in experiment. The proton self-modulation stage is also investigated with a close look at the seeding electron beam dynamics and its BR. As a footprint of the emitting particles, BR can provide valuable information about the beam dynamics. Some practical challenges to implement the betatron diagnostic in the AWAKE Run 2 experiment are also addressed.

Design and operation of transfer lines for plasma wakefield accelerators using numerical optimizers

The Advanced Wakefield (AWAKE) Experiment is a proof-of-principle experiment demonstrating the acceleration of electron beams via proton-driven plasma wakefield acceleration. AWAKE Run 2 aims to build on the results of Run 1 by achieving higher energies with an improved beam quality. As part of the upgrade to Run 2, the existing proton and electron beamlines will be adapted and a second plasma cell and new 150-MeV electron beamline will be added. The specification for this new 150-MeV beamline will be challenging as it will be required to inject electron bunches with micron-level beam size and stability into the second plasma cell while being subject to tight spatial constraints. In this paper, we describe the techniques used (e.g., numerical optimizers and genetic algorithms) to produce the design of this electron line. We present a comparison of the methods used in this paper with other optimization algorithms commonly used within accelerator physics. Operational techniques are also studied including steering and alignment methods utilizing numerical optimizers and beam measurement techniques employing neural networks. We compare the performance of algorithms for online optimization and beam-based alignment in terms of their efficiency and effectiveness.

Plasma wakefield acceleration beyond the dephasing limit with 400 GeV proton driver

A new regime of proton-driven plasma wakefield acceleration is discovered, in which the plasma nonlinearity increases the phase velocity of the excited wave compared to that of the protons. If the beam charge is much larger than minimally necessary to excite a nonlinear wave, there is sufficient freedom in choosing the longitudinal plasma density profile to make the wave speed close to the speed of light. This allows electrons or positrons to be accelerated to about 200 GeV with a 400 GeV proton driver.

Stability of elliptical self-modulating long proton bunches in plasma wakefields

The AWAKE experiment at CERN recently demonstrated the world’s first acceleration of electrons in a proton-driven plasma wakefield accelerator. Such accelerators show great promise for a new generation of linear e-p colliders using 1-10 GV/m accelerating fields. Efficiently driving a wakefield requires 100-fold self-modulation of the 12cm Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) proton bunch using a plasma-driven process which must be carefully controlled to saturation. Previous works have modelled this process assuming azimuthal symmetry of the transverse spatial and momentum profiles. In this work, 3D particle-in-cell (PIC) simulations with the code QuickPIC are used to model the self-modulation of non-round bunches. We find that asymmetry in the initial seed wakefield leads to the formation of highly asymmetric microbunches which evolve incoherently along the symmetry axes of the initial bunch profile. However, the resonantly-driven accelerating wakefield is highly stable to both focused and astigmatic non-round bunches.

Online multi-objective particle accelerator optimization of the AWAKE electron beam line for simultaneous emittance and orbit control

Multi-objective optimization is important for particle accelerators where various competing objectives must be satisfied routinely such as, for example, transverse emittance vs bunch length. We develop and demonstrate an online multi-time scale multi-objective optimization algorithm that performs real time feedback on particle accelerators. We demonstrate the ability to simultaneously minimize the emittance and maintain a reference trajectory of a beam in the electron beamline in CERN’s Advanced Proton Driven Plasma Wakefield Acceleration Experiment.

Correction to 'Proton-driven plasma wakefield acceleration in AWAKE'.

Correction to 'Proton-driven plasma wakefield acceleration in AWAKE'.

First fully kinetic three-dimensional simulation of the AWAKE baseline scenario

The ‘Advanced Proton Driven Plasma Wakefield Acceleration Experiment’ (AWAKE) aims to accelerate leptons via proton-beam-driven wakefield acceleration. It comprises extensive numerical studies as well as experiments at the CERN laboratory. The baseline scenario incorporates a plasma volume of approximately 62 cm3. The plasma wavelength is about 1.25 mm and needs to be adequately resolved, using a minimum of 130 points per plasma wavelength, in order to accurately reproduce the physics. The baseline scenario incorporates the proton beam micro-bunching, the concurrent nonlinear wakefield growth as well as the off-axis electron beam injection, trapping and acceleration. We present results for the first three-dimensional simulation of this baseline scenario with a full model, using a sufficient resolution. The simulation consumed about 22 Mch of computer resources and scaled up to 32 768 cores, thanks to a multitude of adaptions, improvements and optimization of the simulation code PSC. Through this large-scale simulation effort we were able to verify the results of reduced-model simulations as well as identify important novel effects during the electron injection process.

Particle physics experiments based on the AWAKE acceleration scheme.

New particle acceleration schemes open up exciting opportunities, potentially providing more compact or higher-energy accelerators. The AWAKE experiment at CERN is currently taking data to establish the method of proton-driven plasma wakefield acceleration. A second phase aims to demonstrate that bunches of about 109 electrons can be accelerated to high energy, preserving emittance and that the process is scalable with length. With this, an electron beam of [Formula: see text](50 GeV) could be available for new fixed-target or beam-dump experiments searching for the hidden sector, like dark photons. The rate of electrons on target could be increased by a factor of more than 1000 compared to that currently available, leading to a corresponding increase in sensitivity to new physics. Such a beam could also be brought into collision with a high-power laser and thereby probe the completely unmeasured region of strong fields at values of the Schwinger critical field. An ultimate goal is to produce an electron beam of [Formula: see text](3 TeV) and collide with an Large Hadron Collider proton beam. This very high-energy electron-proton collider would probe a new regime in which the structure of matter is completely unknown. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Directions in particle beam-driven plasma wakefield acceleration'.

A magnetic spectrometer to measure electron bunches accelerated at AWAKE

A magnetic spectrometer has been developed for the AWAKE experiment at CERN in order to measure the energy distribution of bunches of electrons accelerated in wakefields generated by proton bunches in plasma. AWAKE is a proof-of-principle experiment for proton-driven plasma wakefield acceleration, using proton bunches from the SPS. Electron bunches are accelerated to $\mathcal{O}$(1 GeV) in a rubidium plasma cell and then separated from the proton bunches via a dipole magnet. The dipole magnet also induces an energy-dependent spatial horizontal spread on the electron bunch which then impacts on a scintillator screen. The scintillation photons emitted are transported via three highly-reflective mirrors to an intensified CCD camera, housed in a dark room, which passes the images to the CERN controls system for storage and further analysis. Given the known magnetic field and determination of the efficiencies of the system, the spatial spread of the scintillation photons can be converted to an electron energy distribution. A lamp attached on a rail in front of the scintillator is used to calibrate the optical system, with calibration of the scintillator screen's response to electrons carried out at the CLEAR facility at CERN. In this article, the design of the AWAKE spectrometer is presented, along with the calibrations carried out and expected performance such that the energy distribution of accelerated electrons can be measured.

New Regime of Plasma Wake-Field Acceleration in the Extreme Blowout Regime

Three dimensional particle in cell simulations are used for studying proton driven plasma wake-field acceleration that uses a high-energy proton bunch to drive a plasma wake-field for electron beam acceleration. A new parameter regime was found which generates essentially constant electric field that is three orders magnitudes larger than that of AWAKE design, i.e. of the order of $2 \times 10^{3}$ GV/m. This is achieved in the the extreme blowout regime, when number density of the driving proton bunch exceeds plasma electron number density 100 times.

Commissioning of beam instrumentation at the CERN AWAKE facility after integration of the electron beam line

The Advanced Proton Driven Plasma Wakefield Acceleration Experiment (AWAKE) is a project at CERN aiming to accelerate an electron bunch in a plasma wakefield driven by a proton bunch. The plasma is induced in a 10 m long rubidium vapor cell using a pulsed Ti:Sapphire laser, with the wakefield formed by a proton bunch from the CERN Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS). A 16 MeV electron bunch is simultaneously injected into the plasma cell to be accelerated by the wakefield to energies in the GeV range over this short distance. After successful runs with the proton and laser beams, the electron beam line was installed and commissioned at the end of 2017 to produce and inject a suitable electron bunch into the plasma cell. To achieve the goals of the experiment, it is important to have reliable beam instrumentation measuring the various parameters of the proton, electron and laser beams. This contribution presents the status of the beam instrumentation in AWAKE and reports on the performance achieved during the AWAKE runs in 2017.

Status and Prospects for the AWAKE Experiment

The AWAKE Collaboration is pursuing a demonstration of proton-driven plasma wakefield acceleration of electrons. The AWAKE experiment uses a 400GeV/c proton bunch from the CERN SPS, with a rms bunch length of 6-15 cm, to drive wakefields in a 10 m long rubidium plasma with an electron density of 1014 — 1015cm−3. Since the drive bunch length is much longer than the plasma wavelength (λpe <3 mm) for these plasma densities, AWAKE performed experiments to prove that the long proton bunch self-modulates in the plasma (2017). The next step is to demonstrate acceleration of electrons in the wakefields driven by the self-modulated bunch (2018). We summarize the concept of the self-modulation measurements and describe the plans and challenges for the electron acceleration experiments.

Acceleration of electrons in the plasma wakefield of a proton bunch

High-energy particle accelerators have been crucial in providing a deeper understanding of fundamental particles and the forces that govern their interactions. To increase the energy of the particles or to reduce the size of the accelerator, new acceleration schemes need to be developed. Plasma wakefield acceleration1–5, in which the electrons in a plasma are excited, leading to strong electric fields (so called ‘wakefields’), is one such promising acceleration technique. Experiments have shown that an intense laser pulse6–9 or electron bunch10,11 traversing a plasma can drive electric fields of tens of gigavolts per metre and above—well beyond those achieved in conventional radio-frequency accelerators (about 0.1 gigavolt per metre). However, the low stored energy of laser pulses and electron bunches means that multiple acceleration stages are needed to reach very high particle energies5,12. The use of proton bunches is compelling because they have the potential to drive wakefields and to accelerate electrons to high energy in a single acceleration stage13. Long, thin proton bunches can be used because they undergo a process called self-modulation14–16, a particle–plasma interaction that splits the bunch longitudinally into a series of high-density microbunches, which then act resonantly to create large wakefields. The Advanced Wakefield (AWAKE) experiment at CERN17–19 uses high-intensity proton bunches—in which each proton has an energy of 400 gigaelectronvolts, resulting in a total bunch energy of 19 kilojoules—to drive a wakefield in a ten-metre-long plasma. Electron bunches are then injected into this wakefield. Here we present measurements of electrons accelerated up to two gigaelectronvolts at the AWAKE experiment, in a demonstration of proton-driven plasma wakefield acceleration. Measurements were conducted under various plasma conditions and the acceleration was found to be consistent and reliable. The potential for this scheme to produce very high-energy electron bunches in a single accelerating stage20 means that our results are an important step towards the development of future high-energy particle accelerators21,22.

Physics at the SPS.

The CERN Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) has delivered a variety of beams to a vigorous fixed target physics program since 1978. In this paper, we restrict ourselves to the description of a few illustrative examples in the ongoing physics program at the SPS. We will outline the physics aims of the COmmon Muon Proton Apparatus for Structure and Spectroscopy (COMPASS), north area 64 (NA64), north area 62 (NA62), north area 61 (NA61), and advanced proton driven plasma wakefield acceleration experiment (AWAKE). COMPASS studies the structure of the proton and more specifically of its spin. NA64 searches for the dark photon A', which is the messenger for interactions between normal and dark matter. The NA62 experiment aims at a 10% precision measurement of the very rare decay K+ → π+νν. As this decay mode can be calculated very precisely in the Standard Model, it offers a very good opportunity to look for new physics beyond the Standard Model. The NA61/SHINE experiment studies the phase transition to Quark Gluon Plasma, a state in which the quarks and gluons that form the proton and the neutron are de-confined. Finally, AWAKE investigates proton-driven wake field acceleration: a promising technique to accelerate electrons with very high accelerating gradients. The Physics Beyond Colliders study at CERN is paving the way for a significant and diversified continuation of this already rich and compelling physics program that is complementary to the one at the big colliders like the Large Hadron Collider.

The electron accelerators for the AWAKE experiment at CERN—Baseline and Future Developments

The AWAKE collaboration prepares a proton driven plasma wakefield acceleration experiment using the SPS beam at CERN. A long proton bunch extracted from the SPS interacts with a high power laser and a 10 m long rubidium vapor plasma cell to create strong wakefields allowing sustained electron acceleration. The electron beam to probe these wakefields is created by an electron accelerator consisting of an rf-gun and a booster structure. This electron source should provide beams with intensities between 0.1 and 1 nC, bunch lengths between 0.3 and 3 ps and an emittance of the order of 2 mm mrad. The booster structure should accelerate the electrons to 16 MeV. The electron line includes a series of diagnostics (pepper-pot, BPMs, spectrometer, Faraday cup and screens) and an optical transfer line merges the electron beam with the proton beam on the same axis. The installation of the electron line started in early 2017 and the commissioning will take place at the end of 2017. The first phase of operation is called RUN1. After the long shutdown of LHC a second phase for AWAKE is planned starting 2021 called RUN2. In this phase the aim is to demonstrate the acceleration of high quality electron beams therefore a bunch length of the order of 100 fs rms is required corresponding to a fraction of the plasma wavelength. The AWAKE collaboration is studying the design of such an injector either based on classical rf-gun injectors or on laser wake-field acceleration. The focus for the RF accelerator is on a hybrid design using an S-band rf-gun and x-band bunching and acceleration cavities. The layout of the current and the future electron accelerator and transfer line, including the diagnostics will be presented.

AWAKE readiness for the study of the seeded self-modulation of a 400 GeV proton bunch

AWAKE is a proton-driven plasma wakefield acceleration experiment. We show that the experimental setup briefly described here is ready for systematic study of the seeded self-modulation of the 400 GeV proton bunch in the 10 m long rubidium plasma with density adjustable from 1 to cm−3. We show that the short laser pulse used for ionization of the rubidium vapor propagates all the way along the column, suggesting full ionization of the vapor. We show that ionization occurs along the proton bunch, at the laser time and that the plasma that follows affects the proton bunch.

High-quality electron beam generation in a proton-driven hollow plasma wakefield accelerator

Simulations of proton-driven plasma wakefield accelerators have demonstrated substantially higher accelerating gradients compared to conventional accelerators and the viability of accelerating electrons to the energy frontier in a single plasma stage. However, due to the strong intrinsic transverse fields varying both radially and in time, the witness beam quality is still far from suitable for practical application in future colliders. Here we demonstrate efficient acceleration of electrons in proton-driven wakefields in a hollow plasma channel. In this regime, the witness bunch is positioned in the region with a strong accelerating field, free from plasma electrons and ions. We show that the electron beam carrying the charge of about 10% of 1 TeV proton driver charge can be accelerated to 0.6 TeV with preserved normalized emittance in a single channel of 700 m. This high quality and high charge beam may pave the way for the development of future plasma-based energy frontier colliders.

Multi-proton bunch driven hollow plasma wakefield acceleration in the nonlinear regime

Proton-driven plasma wakefield acceleration has been demonstrated in simulations to be capable of accelerating particles to the energy frontier in a single stage, but its potential is hindered by the fact that currently available proton bunches are orders of magnitude longer than the plasma wavelength. Fortunately, proton micro-bunching allows driving plasma waves resonantly. In this paper, we propose using a hollow plasma channel for multiple proton bunch driven plasma wakefield acceleration and demonstrate that it enables the operation in the nonlinear regime and resonant excitation of strong plasma waves. This new regime also involves beneficial features of hollow channels for the accelerated beam (such as emittance preservation and a uniform accelerating field) and long buckets of stable deceleration for the drive beam. The regime is attained at a proper ratio between plasma skin depth, driver radius, hollow channel radius, and micro-bunch period.