Protein Bovine Pancreatic Trypsin Inhibitor Research Articles

Role of water in the pressure-induced unfolding of Bovine Pancreatic Trypsin Inhibitor (BPTI) protein: A molecular dynamics study

The mechanism of protein denaturation under pressure is still an active area of research. Using extensive molecular dynamics simulations, for a partially unfolded structures of BPTI protein, we have studied the role of water in the unfolding of proteins at pressures of 0.001, 5, and 10 kbar at 298K. Our results show that high enough pressure leads to insertion of water into the protein’s interior, causing structural perturbation to proteins, facilitated by a decrease in the intact time of intra-protein hydrogen bond acceptor–donor distances or an increase in the residence times of shell waters or by a combination of both.

A growth type pathway for improving the folding of BPTI.

The in vitro oxidative folding of the protein bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI) with oxidized dithiothreitol or glutathione has served as a paradigm for protein folding but could take weeks at physiological pH because of the need to escape from kinetic traps via a rearrangement type pathway. The two major kinetic traps are called N' and N* and contain two of the three native disulfide bonds, which occur between residues 5 and 55, 30 and 51, and 14 and 38. N' is missing the disulfide bond between residues 5 and 55 while N* is missing the disulfide bond between residues 30 and 51. By determining rate constant for the reactions of the kinetic traps N* and N' and their mixed disulfides with glutathione and glutathione disulfide, many for the first time, we demonstrate that growth type pathways are feasible and could even be more efficient than rearrangement type pathways. Thus, formally unproductive pathways became productive. Interestingly, under physiological redox conditions both rearrangement and growth type pathways are important highlighting the redundancy of oxidative protein folding. With the new set of rate constants, modeling indicated that in vitro oxidative protein folding of BPTI via a growth type pathway using an oxidation, reduction and oxidation cycle would significantly improve protein folding efficiency, albeit under non-physiological redox conditions. With these changing conditions 91 ± 2% of native BPTI was achieved in 12 h compared to 83% native protein in 24 h using our previous best conditions of 5 mM GSSG and 5 mM GSH. Therefore, changing redox conditions via an oxidation, reduction and oxidation cycle may become an additional methodology for enhancing in vitro protein folding in aqueous solution.

Correlation between protein conformations and water structure and thermodynamics at high pressure: A molecular dynamics study of the Bovine Pancreatic Trypsin Inhibitor (BPTI) protein.

Pressure-induced perturbation of a protein structure leading to its folding-unfolding mechanism is an important yet not fully understood phenomenon. The key point here is the role of water and its coupling with protein conformations as a function of pressure. In the current work, using extensive molecular dynamics simulation at 298K, we systematically examine the coupling between protein conformations and water structures of pressures of 0.001, 5, 10, 15, 20 kbar, starting from (partially) unfolded structures of the protein Bovine Pancreatic Trypsin Inhibitor (BPTI). We also calculate localized thermodynamics at those pressures as a function of protein-water distance. Our findings show that both protein-specific and generic effects of pressure are operating. In particular, we found that (1) the amount of increase in water density near the protein depends on the protein structural heterogeneity; (2) the intra-protein hydrogen bond decreases with pressure, while the water-water hydrogen bond per water in the first solvation shell (FSS) increases; protein-water hydrogen bonds also found to increase with pressure, (3) with pressure hydrogen bonds of waters in the FSS getting twisted; and (4) water's tetrahedrality in the FSS decreases with pressure, but it is dependent on the local environment. Thermodynamically, at higher pressure, the structural perturbation of BPTI is due to the pressure-volume work, while the entropy decreases with the increase of pressure due to the higher translational and rotational rigidity of waters in the FSS. The local and subtle effects of pressure, found in this work, are likely to be typical of pressure-induced protein structure perturbation.

Protein 3D Hydration: A Case of Bovine Pancreatic Trypsin Inhibitor

Characterization of the hydrated state of a protein is crucial for understanding its structural stability and function. In the present study, we have investigated the 3D hydration structure of the protein BPTI (bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor) by molecular dynamics (MD) and the integral equation method in the three-dimensional reference interaction site model (3D-RISM) approach. Both methods have found a well-defined hydration layer around the protein and revealed the localization of BPTI buried water molecules corresponding to the X-ray crystallography data. Moreover, under 3D-RISM calculations, the obtained positions of waters bound firmly to the BPTI sites are in reasonable agreement with the experimental results mentioned above for the BPTI crystal form. The analysis of the 3D hydration structure (thickness of hydration shell and hydration numbers) was performed for the entire protein and its polar and non-polar parts using various cut-off distances taken from the literature as well as by a straightforward procedure proposed here for determining the thickness of the hydration layer. Using the thickness of the hydration shell from this procedure allows for calculating the total hydration number of biomolecules properly under both methods. Following this approach, we have obtained the thickness of the BPTI hydration layer of 3.6 Å with 369 water molecules in the case of MD simulation and 3.9 Å with 333 water molecules in the case of the 3D-RISM approach. The above procedure was also applied for a more detailed description of the BPTI hydration structure near the polar charged and uncharged radicals as well as non-polar radicals. The results presented for the BPTI as an example bring new knowledge to the understanding of protein hydration.

Microscopic insights into dynamic disorder in the isomerization dynamics of the protein BPTI.

Understanding the dynamic disorder behind a process, i.e., the dynamic effect of fluctuations that occur on a timescale slower or comparable with the timescale of the process, is essential for elucidating the dynamics and kinetics of complicated molecular processes in biomolecules and liquids. Despite numerous theoretical studies of single-molecule kinetics, our microscopic understanding of dynamic disorder remains limited. In the present study, we investigate the microscopic aspects of dynamic disorder in the isomerization dynamics of the Cys14-Cys38 disulfide bond in the protein bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor, which has been observed by nuclear magnetic resonance. We use a theoretical model with a stochastic transition rate coefficient, which is calculated from the 1-ms-long time molecular dynamics trajectory obtained by Shaw et al. [Science 330, 341-346 (2010)]. The isomerization dynamics are expressed by the transitions between coarse-grained states consisting of internal states, i.e., conformational sub-states. In this description, the rate for the transition from the coarse-grained states is stochastically modulated due to fluctuations between internal states. We examine the survival probability for the conformational transitions from a coarse-grained state using a theoretical model, which is a good approximation to the directly calculated survival probability. The dynamic disorder changes from a slow modulation limit to a fast modulation limit depending on the aspects of the coarse-grained states. Our analysis of the rate modulations behind the survival probability, in relation to the fluctuations between internal states, reveals the microscopic origin of dynamic disorder.

Grand: A Python Module for Grand Canonical Water Sampling in OpenMM.

Networks of water molecules can play a critical role at the protein-ligand interface and can directly influence drug-target interactions. Grand canonical methods aid in the sampling of these water molecules, where conventional molecular dynamics equilibration times are often long, by allowing waters to be inserted and deleted from the system, according to the chemical potential. Here, we present our open source Python module, grand (https://github.com/essex-lab/grand), which allows molecular dynamics simulations to be performed in conjunction with grand canonical Monte Carlo sampling, using the OpenMM simulation engine. We demonstrate the accuracy of this module by reproducing the density of bulk water observed from constant pressure simulations. Application of this code to the bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor protein reproduces three buried crystallographic water sites that are poorly sampled using conventional molecular dynamics.

BPTI folding revisited: switching a disulfide into methylene thioacetal reveals a previously hidden path.

Bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI) is a 58-residue protein that is stabilized by three disulfide bonds at positions 5-55, 14-38 and 30-51. Widely studied for about 50 years, BPTI represents a folding model for many disulfide-rich proteins. In the study described below, we replaced the solvent exposed 14-38 disulfide bond with a methylene thioacetal bridge in an attempt to arrest the folding pathway of the protein at its two well-known intermediates, N' and N*. The modified protein was expected to be unable to undergo the rate-determining step in the widely accepted BPTI folding mechanism: the opening of the 14-38 disulfide bond followed by rearrangements that leads to the native state, N. Surprisingly, instead of halting BPTI folding at N' and N*, we uncovered a hidden pathway involving a direct reaction between the N* intermediate and the oxidizing reagent glutathione (GSSG) to form the disulfide-mixed intermediate N*-SG, which spontaneously folds into N. On the other hand, N' was unable to fold into N. In addition, we found that the methylene thioacetal bridge enhances BPTI stability while fully maintaining its structure and biological function. These findings suggest a general strategy for enhancing protein stability without compromising on function or structure, suggesting potential applications for future therapeutic protein production.

Correlation as a Determinant of Configurational Entropy in Supramolecular and Protein Systems

For biomolecules in solution, changes in configurational entropy are thought to contribute substantially to the free energies of processes like binding and conformational change. In principle, the configurational entropy can be strongly affected by pairwise and higher-order correlations among conformational degrees of freedom. However, the literature offers mixed perspectives regarding the contributions that changes in correlations make to changes in configurational entropy for such processes. Here we take advantage of powerful techniques for simulation and entropy analysis to carry out rigorous in silico studies of correlation in binding and conformational changes. In particular, we apply information-theoretic expansions of the configurational entropy to well-sampled molecular dynamics simulations of a model host–guest system and the protein bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor. The results bear on the interpretation of NMR data, as they indicate that changes in correlation are important determinants of entropy changes for biologically relevant processes and that changes in correlation may either balance or reinforce changes in first-order entropy. The results also highlight the importance of main-chain torsions as contributors to changes in protein configurational entropy. As simulation techniques grow in power, the mathematical techniques used here will offer new opportunities to answer challenging questions about complex molecular systems.

Transient Access to the Protein Interior: Simulation versus NMR

Many proteins rely on rare structural fluctuations for their function, whereby solvent and other small molecules gain transient access to internal cavities. In magnetic relaxation dispersion (MRD) experiments, water molecules buried in such cavities are used as intrinsic probes of the intermittent protein motions that govern their exchange with external solvent. While this has allowed a detailed characterization of exchange kinetics for several proteins, little is known about the exchange mechanism. Here, we use a millisecond all-atom MD trajectory produced by Shaw et al. (Science2010, 330, 341) to characterize water exchange from the four internal hydration sites in the protein bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor. Using a recently developed stochastic point process approach, we compute the survival correlation function probed by MRD experiments as well as other quantities designed to validate the exchange-mediated orientational randomization (EMOR) model used to interpret the MRD data. The EMOR model is found to be quantitatively accurate, and the simulation reproduces the experimental mean survival times for all four sites with activation energy discrepancies in the range 0-3 kBT. On the other hand, the simulated hydration sites are somewhat too flexible, and the water flip barrier is underestimated by up to 6 kBT. The simulation reveals that water molecules gain access to the internal sites by a transient aqueduct mechanism, migrating as single-file water chains through transient (<5 ns) tunnels or pores. The present study illustrates the power of state-of-the-art molecular dynamics simulations in validating and extending experimental results.

Entropy–enthalpy transduction caused by conformational shifts can obscure the forces driving protein–ligand binding

Molecular dynamics simulations of unprecedented duration now can provide new insights into biomolecular mechanisms. Analysis of a 1-ms molecular dynamics simulation of the small protein bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor reveals that its main conformations have different thermodynamic profiles and that perturbation of a single geometric variable, such as a torsion angle or interresidue distance, can select for occupancy of one or another conformational state. These results establish the basis for a mechanism that we term entropy-enthalpy transduction (EET), in which the thermodynamic character of a local perturbation, such as enthalpic binding of a small molecule, is camouflaged by the thermodynamics of a global conformational change induced by the perturbation, such as a switch into a high-entropy conformational state. It is noted that EET could occur in many systems, making measured entropies and enthalpies of folding and binding unreliable indicators of actual thermodynamic driving forces. The same mechanism might also account for the high experimental variance of measured enthalpies and entropies relative to free energies in some calorimetric studies. Finally, EET may be the physical mechanism underlying many cases of entropy-enthalpy compensation.

Genetic Selection for Enhanced FoldingIn VivoTargets the Cys14-Cys38 Disulfide Bond in Bovine Pancreatic Trypsin Inhibitor

The periplasm provides a strongly oxidizing environment; however, periplasmic expression of proteins with disulfide bonds is often inefficient. Here, we used two different tripartite fusion systems to perform in vivo selections for mutants of the model protein bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI) with the aim of enhancing its expression in Escherichia coli. This trypsin inhibitor contains three disulfides that contribute to its extreme stability and protease resistance. The mutants we isolated for increased expression appear to act by eliminating or destabilizing the Cys14-Cys38 disulfide in BPTI. In doing so, they are expected to reduce or eliminate kinetic traps that exist within the well characterized in vitro folding pathway of BPTI. These results suggest that elimination or destabilization of a disulfide bond whose formation is problematic in vitro can enhance in vivo protein folding. The use of these in vivo selections may prove a valuable way to identify and eliminate disulfides and other rate-limiting steps in the folding of proteins, including those proteins whose in vitro folding pathways are unknown.

ANTON PROVES ITS METTLE

THE SUPERCOMPUTER Anton is online and ready to fold proteins. D. E. Shaw Research, which designed and built the massively parallel Anton, has at last verified the machine’s much-publicized capabilities, reporting Anton’s first major long-time-scale protein dynamics simulations. The computer performed two types of simulations of well-studied systems: In the first, Anton’s 100-microsecond simulations of the protein domain FiP35 show that the domain folds and unfolds in the same progression of steps each time—a surprise to some researchers. The second simulation involved a longer, one-millisecond study of the dynamics of the already folded protein bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI), which explored the intricate motions of protein in water. Results were published in Science ( 2010, 330, 341). “This work demonstrates that their machine really can do the tasks they proposed,” says Vijay Pande, an associate chemistry professor at Stanford University and creator of the folding@home project, which harnesse...

The normal modes of a protein: Native bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor

A completely general treatment of normal mode analysis is developed that can be used with any potential energy function and any set of generalized coordinates. The method is applied to the calculation of the normal modes of the small protein bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor that has been the subject of many previous theoretical studies. The potential energy function used comprises a torsion angle potential, a van der Waals potential between nonbonded pairs of atoms, and a hydrogen bond potential. Therefore, the generalized coordinates used are the 208 Φ, ϕ, and χ torsion angles about single bonds. This eliminates the difficulties inherent in using internal or Cartesian coordinates for a large molecule. Many dynamic properties of the protein may now be calculated in the normal mode description. In particular, the rms magnitudes and pair correlations of the fluctuations in positions and velocities of the α-carbon atoms and various classes of torsion angles, such as backbone, side chain, β-sheet, and α-helix, are calculated and analyzed to identify the most correlated modes. In addition, the ir intensities are calculated.

Chemically bound gold nanoparticle arrays on silicon: assembly, properties and SERS study of protein interactions

A highly reproducible and facile method for formation of ordered 2 dimensional arrays of CTAB protected 50 nm gold nanoparticles bonded to silicon wafers is described. The silicon wafers have been chemically modified with long-chain silanes terminated with thiol that penetrate the CTAB bilayer and chemically bind to the underlying gold nanoparticle. The silicon wafer provides a reproducibly smooth, chemically functionalizable and non-fluorescent substrate with a silicon phonon mode which may provide a convenient internal frequency and intensity calibration for vibrational spectroscopy. The CTAB bilayer provides a potentially biomimetic environment for analyte, yet allows a sufficiently small nanoparticle separation to achieve a significant electric field enhancement. The arrays have been characterized using SEM and Raman spectroscopy. These studies reveal that the reproducibility of the arrays is excellent both between batches (<10% RSD) and across a single batch (<5% RSD). The arrays also exhibit good stability, and the effect of temperature on the arrays was also investigated. The interaction of protein and amino acid with the nanoparticle arrays was investigated using Raman microscopy to investigate their potential in bio-SERS spectroscopy. Raman of phenylalanine and the protein bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor, BPTI were studied using 785 nm excitation, coincident with the surface plasmon absorbance of the array. The arrays exhibit SERS enhancements of the order of 2.6 x 10(4) for phenylalanine, the standard deviation on the relative intensity of the 1555 cm(-1) mode of phenylalanine is less than 10% for 100 randomly distributed locations across a single substrate and less than 20% between different substrates. Significantly, comparisons of the Raman spectra of the protein and phenylalanine in solution and immobilized on the nanoparticle arrays indicates that the protein is non-randomly orientated on the arrays. Selective SERS enhancements suggest that aromatic residues penetrate through the bilayer inducing conformational changes in the protein.

Synthetic Approaches to Disulfide-free Circular Bovine Pancreatic Trypsin Inhibitor (c-BPTI) Analogues

Several approaches were investigated with the goal to obtain disulfide-free circularized analogues of the 58-residue small protein bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI). These approaches include (1) a semisynthesis that uses as a starting point naturally occurring BPTI and takes advantage of the native proximity of the C- and N-termini; (2) a synthesis in which a peptide thioester prepared by stepwise Fmoc solid-phase chemistry is cyclized by a solution native chemical ligation step; (3) a stepwise Fmoc solid-phase synthesis of a protected circularly permuted linear sequence, followed by an attempted selective activation and head-to-tail cyclization; and (4) a stepwise Fmoc solid-phase synthesis of the same analogue, but using a different disconnection point, that features backbone amide linker (BAL) anchoring and attempted on-resin cyclization. The first two of these approaches were indeed successful in providing the desired target molecules in excellent purities and respectable yields, and could well be amenable to generalization. It is not yet clear whether or not the latter two approaches could be salvaged by modifications in the details of the chemical procedures applied.

Influence of pressure on structure and dynamics of bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI): Small angle and quasi-elastic neutron scattering studies

We have studied the influence of pressure on structure and dynamics of a small protein belonging to the enzymatic catalysis: the bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI). Using a copper-beryllium high-pressure cell, we have performed small angle neutron scattering (SANS) experiment on NEAT spectrometer at HMI (Berlin, Germany). In the SANS configuration, the evolution of the radius of gyration and of the shape of the protein under pressures up to 6000 bar has been studied. When increasing pressure from atmospheric pressure up to 6000 bar, the pressure effects on the global structure of BPTI result on a reduction of the radius of gyration from 13.4 Å down to 12.0 Å. Between 5000 and 6000 bar, some transition already detected by FTIR [N. Takeda, K. Nakano, M. Kato, Y. Taniguchi, Biospectroscopy, 4, 1998, pp. 209–216] is observed. The pressure effect is not reversible because the initial value of the radius of gyration is not recovered after pressure release. By extending the range of wave-vectors to high q, we have observed a change of the form factor (shape) of the BPTI under pressure. At atmospheric pressure BPTI exhibits an ellipsoidal form factor that is characteristic of the native state. When the pressure is increased from atmospheric pressure up to 6000 bar, the protein keeps its ellipsoidal shape. The parameters of the ellipsoid vary and the transition detected between 5000 and 6000 bar in the form factor of BPTI is in agreement with the FTIR results. After pressure release, the form factor of BPTI is characteristic of an ellipsoid of revolution with a semi-axis a, slightly elongated with respect to that of the native one, indicating that the pressure-induced structural changes on the protein are not reversible. The global motions and the internal dynamics of BPTI protein have been investigated in the same pressure range by quasi-elastic neutron scattering experiments on IN5 time-of-flight spectrometer at ILL (Grenoble, France). The diffusion coefficients D and the internal relaxation times < τ 2> of BPTI deduced from the analysis of the intermediate scattering functions show a slowing down of protein dynamics when increasing pressure.

Synthetic Circularized Analogues of Bovine Pancreatic Trypsin Inhibitor

AbstractTwo cyclic analogues of the protein bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI), c‐[R]Smc and c‐Cys5[R]Abu, have been synthesized. For the first target, a semisynthetic approach featured a cyclization that took advantage of the constraint imposed by the three disulfides of the native protein. For the second target, an entirely unstructured 58‐residue thiolester, prepared by total synthesis with mild Fmoc chemistry and a side‐chain anchoring strategy, was cyclized by native chemical ligation. (© Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH &amp; Co. KGaA, 69451 Weinheim, Germany, 2004)

Modelling free energy of a rigid protein in solid water: Comparison between rigid-body motions and harmonic oscillators

We test two methods to estimate a partition function of a system consisting of multi-atom molecules with intermolecular interaction. Our test case is a protein in water. The first method is based on rigid-body motions. The space in which the protein (bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor) would be moving is limited, so by making a correction to a partition function of a rigid body, we can obtain the function. The function depends on temperature and space. The second method is based on harmonic oscillators. Under the potential field produced by surrounding water molecules, a protein behaves like a set of harmonic oscillators. We obtain the partition function for the oscillators within a harmonic approximation. The function also depends on temperature and the strength of potential energy between the protein and waters. Comparison of the two methods indicates that the second method is better for estimating a partition function for a protein in water.

The use of NMR chemical shifts to analyse the MD trajectories: simulation of bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor dynamics in water as a test case for solvent influences.

In this paper the NMR secondary chemical shifts, that are estimated from a set of 3D-structures, are compared with the observed ones to appraise the behaviour of a known x-ray diffraction structure (of the bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor protein) when various molecular dynamics are applied. The results of a 200 ps molecular dynamics under various conditions are analysed and different ways to modify the molecular dynamics are considered. With the purpose of avoiding the time-consuming explicit representation of the solvent (water) molecules, an attempt was made to understand the role of the solvent and to develop an implicit representation, which may be refined. A simulation of hydrophobic effects in an aqueous environment is also proposed which seems to provide a better approximation of the observed solution structure of the protein.

Performance of hybrid methods for large-scale unconstrained optimization as applied to models of proteins.

Energy minimization plays an important role in structure determination and analysis of proteins, peptides, and other organic molecules; therefore, development of efficient minimization algorithms is important. Recently, Morales and Nocedal developed hybrid methods for large-scale unconstrained optimization that interlace iterations of the limited-memory BFGS method (L-BFGS) and the Hessian-free Newton method (Computat Opt Appl 2002, 21, 143-154). We test the performance of this approach as compared to those of the L-BFGS algorithm of Liu and Nocedal and the truncated Newton (TN) with automatic preconditioner of Nash, as applied to the protein bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI) and a loop of the protein ribonuclease A. These systems are described by the all-atom AMBER force field with a dielectric constant epsilon = 1 and a distance-dependent dielectric function epsilon = 2r, where r is the distance between two atoms. It is shown that for the optimal parameters the hybrid approach is typically two times more efficient in terms of CPU time and function/gradient calculations than the two other methods. The advantage of the hybrid approach increases as the electrostatic interactions become stronger, that is, in going from epsilon = 2r to epsilon = 1, which leads to a more rugged and probably more nonlinear potential energy surface. However, no general rule that defines the optimal parameters has been found and their determination requires a relatively large number of trial-and-error calculations for each problem.