Protein Bait Sprays Research Articles

Effect of fruit fly protein bait on the red scale parasitoid, Aphytis lingnanensis (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae): attraction and toxicity

AbstractProtein bait spray is a tool used widely in tephritid fruit fly pest (Diptera: Tephritidae) control and eradication programs. However, this technique might have a negative effect on non‐target, beneficial insects. Aphytis lingnanensis is a very successful parasitoid of the California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii, a worldwide pest of citrus. Though A. lingnanensis is widely used in augmentative release programs, the impact of protein bait‐insecticide mixtures on the parasitoid is not documented. In this study, we investigated the attraction of A. lingnanensis to Pinnacle® protein, a fruit fly protein bait commonly used in Australia. Following this, the contact toxicity of field weathered residues of protein bait mixed with the insecticides spinosad, fipronil, malathion and chlorpyrifos to A. lingnanensis were evaluated. Finally, the non‐lethal impact of these residues on the capacity of A. lingnanensis to parasitize its host was investigated. Food‐deprived parasitoids were not attracted to protein but were significantly attracted to honey. The lack of attraction of protein, however, increased when sugar was added to it. Relative to a control of only protein, protein bait‐insecticide mixtures applied on citrus leaves and weathered outdoors for 2 h, 3 days, 7 days and 12 days caused high mortality of A. lingnanensis. The residual toxicity of the four weathering periods, for all the protein bait‐insecticide mixtures, produced high mortality rates varying between 90% and 100%. In addition, the capacity of A. lingnanensis to parasitize its host after exposure to weathered residues containing an insecticide was severely affected. The results suggest that A. lingnanensis is highly susceptible to the insecticides evaluated here when used in fruit fly protein baits. Therefore, the use of these insecticides in protein bait sprays, as part of an area wide fruit fly management, should be carefully considered in areas where augmentative release and conservation of A. lingnanensis are also applied.

Effect of Physiological State on Female Melon Fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) Attraction to Host and Food Odor in the Field.

Foraging behavior of wild female melon fly, Bactrocera (Zeugodacus) cucurbitae Coquillett, a worldwide pest of economically important cucurbit crops, was examined through mark and recapture studies in both wild (Kona: dominated by the invasive weed ivy gourd, Coccinea grandis [L.] Voigt [Cucurbitaceae]), and cultivated (Kapoho: dominated by papaya, Carica papaya L. [Caricaceae] orchards) habitats on Hawaii Island. In particular, the extent to which wild melon flies and color-marked F2 females responded to cucumber odor and Solulys yeast hydrolysate laced with ammonium acetate (1%, wt/vol) according to sexual maturity stage and degree of protein hunger was documented. Kona results indicated that more wild and color-marked F2 females responded to cucumber (Cucumis sativus L. [Cucurbitaceae]) odor than to protein odor with the exception of captured wild flies without eggs, which responded similarly to protein bait and cucumber odor. Results with captured wild females and color-marked F2 females in Kapoho suggested a significant preference for cucumber odor over protein odor regardless of whether or not they had eggs in their ovaries with the exception of protein-deprived color-marked F2 females, which responded to both odors in equal numbers. Implications of these new findings based on wild melon flies in natural habitats are discussed with respect to integrated pest management control strategies with protein bait sprays used in Hawaii. The possibility of adding cucurbit volatiles to protein-based baits is discussed.

Evaluation of a systems approach to control Queensland fruit fly (Bactrocera tryoni)in stonefruit as an alternative to fenthion

Queensland fruit fly (Bactrocera tryoni) is a significant quarantine pest of stonefruit. To access domestic markets within Australia stonefruit require treatment to ensure they are free of fruit flies. Due to the recent restriction of the organophosphate pesticides, fenthion and dimethoate, the stonefruit industry now faces a significant challenge to control fruit flies. In this field trial we quantified the level of control achieved by a 'best case' systems approach that relied on currently available and registered control measures. This system included protein bait sprays, Male Annihilation Technique, insecticide cover sprays of trichlorfon, maldison and spinetoram and inspection and culling of damaged fruit. We found that in two out of the three trial orchards, packed fruit samples from Gatton (QLD) and Bangalow (NSW) had low levels of fruit fly infestation; 1.47 and 2.97% respectively. However, at the third property located at Alstonville (NSW) a high level of infestation (51.63%) was found in packed nectarines, which was likely attributed to the late implementation of the systems approach. This trial has demonstrated the potential for fruit fly control without relying on fenthion, however further modification of the system is needed to refine and increase efficacy.

EVALUATION OF PROTEIN BAIT LACED WITH VARIOUS INSECTICIDES ON THE QUEENSLAND FRUIT FLY (DIPTERA: TEPHRITIDAE): ATTRACTION, FEEDING, MORTALITY AND BAIT PERSISTENCE

The use of malathion in fruit fly protein bait sprays has raised serious concerns due to its adverse effects on non-target organisms. This has necessitated the evaluation of novel reduced-risk compounds. This study evaluated the effects of spinosad, fipronil, malathion and chlorpyrifos mixed with fruit fly protein bait (Mauri Pinnacle protein®) on attraction, feeding and mortality of the Queensland fruit fly, Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt). The effects of outdoor weathering of these mixtures on fly mortality were also determined. In field-cage experiment, protein-starved flies showed the same level of attraction to baits containing spinosad, fipronil, malathion, chlorpyrifos and protein alone used as control. Female protein-starved flies were deterred from feeding on baits containing malathion and chlorpyrifos compared to baits containing spinosad, fipronil and protein alone. Baits containing malathion and chlorpyrifos caused higher fly mortality and rapid fly knock down than spinosad and fipronil. However, spinosad acted slowly and caused an increase in fly mortality over time, causing up to 90% fly mortality after 72-h. Baits containing malathion and chlorpyrifos, applied on citrus leaves and weathered outdoors, had longer residual effectiveness in killing flies than spinosad and fipronil. Residual effectiveness of the spinosad bait mixture waned significantly after 3 days of outdoor weathering. Results suggest that spinosad and fipronil can be potential alternatives for malathion in protein bait sprays.

Eradication of tephritid fruit fly pest populations: outcomes and prospects.

The number of insect eradication programmes is rising in response to globalisation. A database of arthropod and plant pathogen eradications covers 1050 incursion responses, with 928 eradication programmes on 299 pest and disease taxa in 104 countries (global eradication database b3.net.nz/gerda). A subset of the database was assembled with 211 eradication or response programmes against 17 species of fruit flies (Tephritidae) in 31 countries, in order to investigate factors affecting the outcome. The failure rate for fruit fly eradication programmes was about 7%, with 0% for Ceratitis capitata (n = 85 programmes) and 0% for two Anastrepha species (n = 12 programmes), but 12% for 13 Bactrocera species (n = 108 programmes). A number of intended eradication programmes against long-established populations were not initiated because of cost and other considerations, or evolved during the planning phase into suppression programmes. Cost was dependent on area, ranged from $US 0.1 million to $US 240 million and averaged about $US 12 million (normalised to $US in 2012). In addition to the routine use of surveillance networks, quarantine and fruit destruction, the key tactics used in eradication programmes were male annihilation, protein bait sprays (which can attract both sexes), fruit destruction and the sterile insect technique. Eradication success generally required the combination of several tactics applied on an area-wide basis. Because the likelihood of eradication declines with an increase in the area infested, it pays to invest in effective surveillance networks that allow early detection and delimitation while invading populations are small, thereby greatly favouring eradication success.

Investigating a replacement for malathion in bait sprays for fruit fly control in South African citrus orchards

The use of the organophosphate malathion (mercaptothion) in protein bait sprays for fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) control in South African citrus orchards will slowly phase out due to lower tolerances of residues of this insecticide on fruit destined for export markets. As such, a replacement for malathion is being sought. In this study, efficacy of six insecticides: abamectin, alpha-cypermethrin, fipronil, imidacloprid, spinosad and tartar emetic, in combination with HymLure (a protein based attractant), was determined in laboratory assays on female Mediterranean fruit flies, Ceratitis capitata Wiedemann. Three concentrations of HymLure (0.8%, 2% and 10%) were tested with five concentrations of each insecticide. Thereafter the efficacy of the most promising attractant–insecticide combination was determined and compared in the laboratory and in a citrus orchard to standard HymLure–malathion (mixture of 0.8% HymLure and malathion at 875 ppm, diluted in water) and GF-120 (5%, diluted in water) treatments for C. capitata and Ceratitis rosa Karsch (Natal fly). Among the insecticides tested, spinosad was found to induce the highest fly mortality in a shorter time over the whole range of concentrations tested, with mortality reaching above 80% after 24 h when combined with a solution of either 2% HymLure or 10% HymLure. Fipronil, tartar emetic and imidacloprid did not act as fast but were also effective, especially when combined with higher concentrations of HymLure. A mixture of 2% HymLure and spinosad at 48 ppm was found to be effective against both C. capitata and C. rosa in both laboratory and field tests and could therefore be recommended as a replacement for malathion-based bait sprays.

Spatial and temporal foraging patterns of Queensland fruit fly, Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt) (Diptera: Tephritidae), for protein and implications for management

AbstractFruit flies require protein for reproductive development and actively feed upon protein sources in the field. Liquid protein baits mixed with insecticide are used routinely to manage pest fruit flies, such as Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt). However, there are still some gaps in the underpinning science required to improve the efficacy of bait spray technology. The spatial and temporal foraging behaviour of B. tryoni in response to protein was investigated in the field. A series of linked trials using either wild flies in the open field or laboratory‐reared flies in field cages and a netted orchard were undertaken using nectarines and guavas. Key questions investigated were the fly's response to protein relative to: height of protein within the canopy, fruiting status of the tree, time of day, season and size of the experimental arena. Canopy height had a significant response on B. tryoni foraging, with more flies foraging on protein in the mid to upper canopy. Fruiting status also had a significant effect on foraging, with most flies responding to protein when applied to fruiting hosts. B. tryoni demonstrated a repeatable diurnal response pattern to protein, with the peak response being between 12:00–16:00 h. Season showed significant but unpredictable effects on fruit fly response to protein in the subtropical environment where the work was undertaken. Relative humidity, but not temperature or rainfall, was positively correlated with protein response. The number of B. tryoni responding to protein decreased dramatically as the spatial scale increased from field cage through to the open field. Based on these results, it is recommend that, to be most effective, protein bait sprays should be applied to the mid to upper canopies of fruiting hosts. Overall, the results show that the protein used, an industry standard, has very low attractancy to B. tryoni and that further work is urgently needed to develop more volatile protein baits.

Eradication ofBactrocera invadens(Diptera: Tephritidae) in Limpopo Province, South Africa

On 5 May 2010, Bactrocera invadens Drew, Tsuruta & White was detected in a methyl eugenol-baited surveillance trap in the northernmost part of the Limpopo Province in South Africa, an area adjacent to the Zimbabwe border. A delimiting survey was carried out to determine extent of spread in the area by trapping with both methyl eugenol and Biolure-3-component lures. A quarantine area of approximately 1100 km2 (surrounding the area of detection) was implemented to regulate movement of host fruits. Eradication of the pest was achieved in the quarantine area through male annihilation technique (MAT) using fibreboard blocks containing methyl eugenol and malathion in combination with protein bait sprays (application of GF-120 and LokLure mixed with malathion) and orchard sanitation. Eradication measures were carried out for a period of 12 weeks. Thereafter, MAT blocks were removed and trapping continued for a period of four weeks to confirm eradication. No B. invadens was caught in the area during the four weeks after control measures had stopped. No B. invadens was captured within a period of 12 weeks (approximately three generations) after the last fly find in the area. This constitutes the first successful eradication of B. invadens from an area of incursion.

Purification and characterisation of proteins secreted by the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae with insecticidal activity against adults of the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Diptera: Tephritidae)

The control of the Mediterranean fruit fly (medfly) Ceratitis capitata (Wied) is usually performed with protein bait sprays incorporating chemical insecticides that may have adverse effects on humans, non-target organisms and the environment. In recent years, scientists have sought more environmentally friendly insecticides for medfly control, such as plant- and microorganism-derived compounds. Among these compounds, entomopathogenic fungi are an unexplored source of natural insecticides. The crude soluble protein extract (CSPE) of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Mestch.) (strain EAMa 01/58-Su) shows chronic insecticidal activity when administered per os. Mortality in flies exhibits a dose response. The CSPE produces an antifeedant effect in adult flies, a result probably due to a progressive deterioration of the fly midgut after ingestion of the extract. Protease and temperature treatments show that insecticidal activity against C. capitata is due to proteinaceous compounds that are highly thermostable. Four monomeric proteins from this crude extract have been purified by liquid chromatography and gel electroelution. Although all four monomers seem to be involved in the insecticidal activity of the CSPE, the 15 kDa and the 11 kDa proteins appear to be mainly responsible for the observed insecticidal effect. Four new fungal proteins with insecticidal activity have been purified and identified. These proteins might be combined with insect baits for C. capitata biocontrol.

Managing Oriental Fruit Fly (Diptera: Tephritidae), With Spinosad-Based Protein Bait Sprays and Sanitation in Papaya Orchards in Hawaii

The efficacy of GF-120 NF Naturalyte Fruit Fly Bait in combination with field sanitation was assessed as a control for female oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae), in papaya (Carica papaya L.) orchards in Hawaii. Three different bait spray regimes were evaluated: every row (high use of the bait), every fifth row (moderate use), and every 10th row (low use). Orchard plots in which no bait was applied served as controls. For five of the seven biweekly periods that followed the first bait spray, trapping data revealed significantly fewer female B. dorsalis captured in plots subject to high and moderate bait use than in control plots. Differences in incidence of infestation among treatments were detected only by the third (12 wk after first spray) fruit sampling with significantly fewer infested one-fourth to one-half ripe papaya fruit in plots subject to high and moderate bait use than in control plots. Parasitism rates by Fopius arisanus (Sonan) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) were not negatively affected by bait application. Results indicate that foliar applications of GF-120 NF Naturalyte Fruit Fly Bait either to all rows (every other tree), or to every fifth row (every tree) in combination with good sanitation can effectively reduce infestation by B. dorsalis in papaya orchards in Hawaii.

Assessment of Attractiveness of Plants as Roosting Sites for the Melon Fly,Bactrocera cucurbitae, and Oriental Fruit Fly,Bactrocera dorsalis

The use of toxic protein bait sprays to suppress melon fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) (Diptera: Tephritidae), populations typically involves application to vegetation bordering agricultural host areas where the adults seek shelter (“roost”). Although bait spray applications for suppression of oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), populations have traditionally been applied to the host crop, rather than to crop borders, roosting by oriental fruit flies in borders of some crop species, such as papaya, Carica papaya L. (Brassicales: Caricaceae), suggests that bait spray applications to crop borders could also help in suppression of B. dorsalis populations. In order to develop improved recommendations for application of bait sprays to border plants for suppression of melon fly and oriental fruit fly populations, the relative attractiveness of a range of plant species, in a vegetative (non-flowering) stage, was tested to wild melon fly and oriental fruit fly populations established in a papaya orchard in Hawaii. A total of 20 plant species were evaluated, divided into four categories: 1) border plants, including corn, Zea mays L. (Poales: Poaceae), windbreaks and broad-leaved ornamentals, 7 species; 2) weed plants commonly found in agricultural fields in Hawaii, 6 species; 3) host crop plants, 1 species- zucchini, Cucurbita pepo L. (Violales: Curcurbitaceae), and 4) locally grown fruit trees, 6 species. Plants were established in pots and placed in an open field, in clusters encircling protein bait traps, 20 m away from the papaya orchard. Castor bean, Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiales: Euphorbiaceae), panax, Polyscias guilfoylei (Bull) Bailey (Apiales: Araliaceae), tiger's claw, Erythnna variegata L. (Fabales: Fabaceae), and guava, Psidium guajava L. (Myrtales: Myrtaceae) were identified as preferred roosting hosts for the melon fly, and tiger's claw, panax, castor bean, Canada cocklebur, Xanthium strumarium L. (Asterales: Asteraceae), Brazilian pepper tree, Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi (Sapindales: Anacardiaceae), ti plant, Cordyline terminate (L.) Chev.(Liliales: Liliaceae), guava and several Citrus spp. were identified as preferred roosting hosts for oriental fruit fly. Guava had not previously been identified as a preferred roosting host for melon fly. Other than for the use of panax as a roosting host, there has previously been little attention to roosting hosts for oriental fruit fly. Establishment of preferred roosting hosts as crop borders may help to improve suppression of both fruit fly species by providing sites for bait spray applications. Further research is needed to assess the use of vegetation bordering other host crops as roosting hosts, especially for oriental fruit fly.

Seasonal phenology of Bactrocera minax (Diptera: Tephritidae) in western Bhutan.

The Chinese citrus fruit fly, Bactrocera (Tetradacus) minax (Enderlein), is one of the major citrus pests in Bhutan and can cause >50% mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) fruit drop. As part of the development of a management strategy for the fly in mandarin orchards, population monitoring and experimental manipulations were carried out to determine: (i) adult emergence period; (ii) adult phenology patterns; (iii) period of crop susceptibility; and (iv) period from fruit drop to pupation. In western Bhutan, adult flies emerge from the overwintering pupal stage in late April/early May. Most flies are mature by the end of May and it is inferred that mating occurs at this time: from the beginning of June males rapidly disappear from the population and by mid- to late June are rare or absent from traps. Mature females are present in the mandarin crop at the beginning of June, but very little oviposition occurs until mid-June, while most damage has occurred by mid-July. Initiation of oviposition into mandarins is almost certainly linked to crop phenology. Adult flies disappear from the orchard system during August. After fruit drop, larvae were recorded leaving the fruit to pupate within 13 days. The use of early to mid-season protein bait sprays and/or targeted use of systemic insecticides during the one month oviposition period, plus the removal of fallen fruit once every 10 days, are recommended as control strategies.

Bactrocera zonata

<i>Bactrocera zonata</i>

Feeding and foraging of wild and sterile Mediterranean fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in the presence of spinosad bait.

The sterile insect technique (SIT) is used to control wild Mediterranean fruit fly introductions in California and Florida in the U.S. In the past, bait sprays containing malathion proved invaluable in treating new outbreaks or large populations before the use of SIT. Recently, a spinosad protein bait spray, GF-120, has been developed as a possible alternative to malathion, the standard insecticide in protein bait sprays. In this study, protein-deficient and protein-fed Vienna-7 (sterile, mass-reared, "male-only" strain) flies and wild males and females were evaluated to determine the effectiveness of the GF-120 protein bait containing spinosad with respect to bait attraction, feeding, and toxicology. There were no effects of diet or fly type on feeding duration in small laboratory cages. Wild flies, however, registered more feeding events than Vienna-7 males. Flies that fed longer on fresh bait died faster. Protein-deficient flies were more active and found the bait more often than protein-fed flies. Data suggest that adding protein to the diet of SIT flies may decrease their response to baits, therefore, reduce mortality, and thus, allow the concurrent use of SIT and bait sprays in a management or eradication program.

Field tests of environmentally friendly malathion replacements to suppress wild Mediterranean fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) populations.

This article reports a large-scale field test of two environmentally friendly malathion replacements on wild populations of the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratatis capitata (Wiedemann): spinosad, a bacteria-derived toxin, and phloxine B, a red dye with phototoxic properties. The comparison test was conducted on 11 coffee fields infested with wild populations of Mediterranean fruit fly on the Hawaiian island of Kauai with 8-wk protein bait sprays with and without toxicants. To assess effectiveness, adults were trapped and larval infestation levels were evaluated with fruit collections. Malathion was found to be the most effective treatment. However, the two replacements gave significant levels of control, and because they are environmentally safer, should be considered for eradicating incipient populations of this invasive species of fruit fly. Cage tests were also conducted to ensure that the wild flies consumed the bait and to assess how long the bait-toxicant combination remained effective in the field. Although spinosad and phloxine B were found to be effective up to 1 wk, malathion remained effective at least 2 wk.

Suppressing oriental fruit fly populations with phloxine B-protein bait sprays

The oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), is a tephritid fruit fly that is a serious pest of a wide range of tropical fruits. Populations of oriental and other fruit fly species are often suppressed by utilizing aerial or ground sprays of hydrolysed protein bait mixed with malathion. Although proven to be efficacious, spraying food bait mixed with malathion in urban areas is strongly opposed by the public because of perceived public health and environmental risks. To suppress the population level of oriental fruit fly in a guava orchard in Hawaii, we used the light-activated xanthene dye, phloxine B (2′,4′,5′,7′ -tetrabromo-4,5,6,7-tetrachlorofluorescein, disodium salt), as an alternative to malathion in protein bait sprays. Because phloxine B must be ingested to be toxic, it is expected that phloxine B bait sprays will have less impact on non-target insects than the contact insecticide malathion. Evidence of suppression of oriental fruit fly population in the treatment orchard was provided by both protein bait trap catches and assessment of fruit infestation. This suppression was achieved even though there was an unsprayed guava orchard on two sides of the small (less than 2.0 ha) sprayed orchard. These results, combined with results for other fruit fly species (presented elsewhere), indicate that phloxine B-protein bait sprays can be effective in suppressing populations of several different fruit fly species and that phloxine B is a potential replacement for malathion in bait sprays for tephritid fruit fly suppression/eradication programs.

Laboratory toxicity of a photo activated dye mixture to six species of beneficial insects

AbstractThe toxicity of a mixture of two photoactive dyes, Phloxine B and Uranine, was determined for six species of beneficial insects in the laboratory. The dye had no measurable contact toxicity to any test insect. The dye, when mixed in protein baits, was significantly more toxic than the bait alone to Chrysopa carnea Stephens, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant, Delphastes pusillus Le Conte and Goniozus legneri (Gordh). The toxicity of all dye and bait mixtures was significantly less to all test insects than that of the malathion and bait mixtures. Substituting the dye mixture for malathion in protein bait sprays used to eradicate exotic fruit flies from the United States should significantly reduce the kill of non‐target beneficial insects.

Attraction of Hawaiian Ground Litter Invertebrates to Protein Hydrolysate Bait

This study addressed the potential effects on Hawaii's unique fauna of protein bait sprays used in fruit fly eradication programs. We sampled the ground litter-inhabiting invertebrates attracted to protein hydrolysate-baited pitfall traps at six localities on the island of Kauai. Twenty-two taxa and possibly 30 species were found in significantly higher numbers in treatment than in control traps. A diverse fauna, including species of land snails (Gastropoda), isopods (Isopoda), millipedes (Diplopoda) and insects (nine families), was attracted to the bait. Flies in the family Drosophilidae may be particularly susceptible to bait sprays, with at least eight species demonstrating attraction. Traps in high-elevation native forest attracted the highest number of species (20) and the most native species (11). The number of native species attracted to the bait decreased with elevation and the proportion of native vegetation, so that no native species were recovered from the two low-elevation agricultural areas. The potential effect of using protein hydrolysate bait sprays for alien fruit fly control in Hawaii is discussed.