Protective Effect Of Higher Education Research Articles

Issues of risky behaviours in university students.

Risk behaviour is typical of adolescence and young adulthood, but the consequences can persist for the rest of life - in all domains - physical, psychological, and social. Challenging situations, stress, as well as feelings of a lack of stimulation in an individual's life are considered to be triggers for risky behaviours. Prevention therefore plays a crucial role. The aim of the study was to analyse the current situation in addictive and risky sexual behaviours in a group of university students. Between 2019 and 2022, students of universities in East Bohemia - University of Hradec Králové (UHK), Charles University (UK), University of Defence (UNOB), and University of Pardubice (UPCE) - were approached and asked to complete a questionnaire survey focused on addictive and risky sexual behaviours. Based on the search strategy, research hypotheses were constructed, which were subsequently developed into interview questions. The research hypotheses were tested using Pearson's test. The questionnaire return rate was 84%. After eliminating invalid responses, 157 participants were included in the survey - 64% female, 36% male, age range 19-32 years. In the area of addictive behaviours, the focus was on substance and non-substance addictions. In terms of addictive substances, a question addressed cigarette smoking, which was reported by 14.6% of the survey participants. This is 50% less than what we see in the general population of the same age (by general population we mean the group of people approached for the surveys conducted, chosen by stratified random sampling based on age). In contrast, significantly higher rates of university students reported the use of illicit substances - marijuana, sedatives/tranquilizers without a doctor's prescription, cocaine, or hallucinogens compared to the age-matched general population. In the area of risky sexual behaviours, a question was included about sexual intercourse with casual acquaintances. It was experienced by one in four respondents. In 83.3%, this behaviour was influenced by the use of an addictive substance. The survey pointed to the high rates of salutoprotective factors (e.g. interest in sports was reported by 87.9% of respondents). Perceived social support from friends (reported by 74.5% of respondents) or family (reported by 72.6% of respondents) is a preventive factor for risky behaviours. The aim of the survey was to determine the prevalence of high-risk addictive and sexual behaviours among university students and possible prevention measures. Salutoprotective factors during increased stress or awareness of social support seem to be of benefit. We assumed a protective effect of higher education, but this survey did not show it. On the contrary, the stress induced by university studies and the pressure on academic performance appeared to be a risk factor. The results of the survey provide insights into new approaches to the prevention to improve its effectiveness and point to major problems to be addressed in Czech university students.

Relationship between educational attainment and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: A two-sample Mendelian randomization study

BackgroundObservational studies have identified an inverse association between education and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). However, it is not possible to establish causality for this relationship. AimsTo gain more insight into the causal nature of the relationship between education and NAFLD. MethodsWe performed two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analyses using summary-level, large-scale datasets to study the association of genetically predicted educational attainment (n = 1271 genetic instruments, obtained from 1,131,881 participants) with risk of NAFLD (i.e., liver fat [n = 32,858 participants] and electronic health record (EHR)-based NAFLD [n = 778,614 participants]). In sensitivity analyses, educational attainment was replaced by three education-related traits (i.e., genetically predicted cognition, math ability and highest math). ResultsInverse-variance weighted method showed a statistically significant association between genetically predicted educational attainment and liver fat (beta: −0.251, 95%CI: −0.305; −0.198) and EHR-based NAFLD (OR: 0.609, 95%CI: 0.547; 0.677). MR-Egger regression did not show statistically significant intercepts. Similar findings were obtained when other MR tests were used or when educational attainment was replaced by education-related traits. ConclusionsThis study suggests a causal, protective effect of higher education on NAFLD risk. Societal interventions targeted at people with low education are needed to alleviate the burden of NAFLD.

Education, wealth, and survival after dementia diagnosis

AbstractBackgroundThe relationship between socio‐economic status (SES) and length of life after dementia diagnosis may vary by specific aspects of SES. Education and wealth, two widely used measures of SES, may extend life expectancy via greater efficiency of health investment and better access to care. However, according to the cognitive reserve hypothesis, education protects against dementia pathology and thus when dementia symptoms manifest, individuals with higher education have more advanced atrophy, likely shortening their post‐dementia life expectancy. This paper examined education and wealth disparities in 1) timing of dementia diagnosis, 2) length of life after diagnosis, and 3) use of healthcare after diagnosis as a potential mechanism through which education and wealth differentially influence survival.MethodData was extracted from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) linked to Medicare claims. From claims we identified 2,377 individuals with incident dementia diagnosis between 2000 and 2016 and followed them for up to 18 years. Using Cox proportional hazard models, we estimated relationships between education, household wealth, and mortality, adjusting for demographics, comorbidity, function, and cognition at the time of dementia diagnosis. To test whether SES disparities were driven by healthcare utilization, we ran linear regressions on the number of emergency room (ER) visits, inpatient admissions, and office visits after diagnosis with the same set of predictors.ResultIndividuals with higher education and wealth exhibited less functional and cognitive impairment at dementia diagnosis. The protective effect of higher education on mortality was absorbed by controlling for wealth. In the fully adjusted model, ranking in the top quartile of wealth was associated with a 17% reduction in mortality risk (HR = 0.83, 95% CI: 0.72‐0.96), relative to the bottom quartile. Wealth was not associated with ER visits, hospitalization, or office visits.ConclusionMore intact function and cognition at incident diagnosis did not confer longer survival for the highly educated. In contrast, the most affluent experienced a lower mortality risk, which was unrelated to healthcare utilization. While more research is warranted to understand pathways, these disparities inform opportunities for achieving health equities among persons living with dementia, by targeting at those with limited financial resources.

Education and income-based inequality in tooth loss among Brazilian adults: does the place you live make a difference?

BackgroundSocioeconomic inequalities in tooth loss might be minimized or potentialized by the characteristics of the context where people live. We examined whether there is contextual variation in socioeconomic inequalities in tooth loss across Brazilian municipalities.MethodsData from the 2010 National Oral Health Survey of 9633 adults living in 157 Brazilian municipalities were used. The individual socioeconomic indicators were education and household income. At the municipal level, we used the Municipal Human Development Index (HDI) as our contextual indicator of socioeconomic status (low:< 0.699 versus high: > 0.70). The Relative (RII) and Slope (SII) Indexes of Inequality, Relative (RCI), and Absolute (ACI) Concentration Indexes were calculated to compare the magnitude of education and income-based inequalities among municipalities with low versus high HDI. Multilevel Poisson regression models with random intercepts and slopes were developed.ResultsAt the individual level, adults with lower education & income reported more tooth loss. The mean number of missing teeth was 9.52 (95% CI: 7.93–11.13) and 6.95 (95% CI: 6.43–7.49) in municipalities with low and high HDI, respectively. Municipalities with high HDI showed higher relative and absolute education-based inequality. For income-based inequalities, higher SII and RCI was observed in municipalities with lower HDI. A significant cross-level interaction indicated that high-education adults reported fewer missing teeth when they lived in municipalities with high HDI compared to adults with the same education level living in low HDI municipalities. For individuals with the lowest education level, there was no difference in the number of teeth between those from municipalities with high and low HDI.ConclusionsThere was a social gradient in tooth loss by education and income. Living in disadvantaged municipalities cannot overcome the risk associated with low schooling. The protective effect of higher education can be reduced when people live in disadvantaged areas.

Diminished Returns of Educational Attainment on Heart Disease among Black Americans

Socioeconomic Status (SES) indicators, such as educational attainment, are social determinants of heart disease. Marginalization related Diminished Returns (MDRs) refer to smaller health benefits of high SES for racial and ethnic minorities compared to the majority group. It is still unknown, however, if MDRs also apply to the effects of education on heart disease. Using a nationally representative sample, we explored racial/ethnic variation in the link between educational attainment and heart disease among American adults. We analyzed data (n=25,659) from a nationally representative survey of American adults in 2013. The first wave of the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health - Adult (PATH-Adult) study was used. The independent variable was education (college graduate, high school graduate, less than a high school diploma). The dependent variable was any heart disease. Age and gender were the covariates. Race, as well as ethnicity, were the moderators. Logistic regressions were used to analyze the data. Individuals with higher educational attainment had lower odds of heart disease. Race and ethnicity showed statistically significant interactions with education, suggesting that the protective effect of higher education on reducing odds of heart disease was smaller for Hispanic and Black people than for non-Hispanic and White individuals. Education reduces the risk of heart disease better among non-Hispanic Whites than for Hispanics and Blacks. Therefore, we may expect a disproportionately higher than expected risk of heart disease in Hispanics and Blacks with high educational attainment. Future research should test if the presence of high levels of environmental and behavioral risk factors contribute to the high risk of heart disease in highly educated Black and Hispanic Americans. Policymakers should not reduce health inequalities to just gaps in SES because disparities are present across SES levels, with high SES Blacks and Hispanics remaining at risk of health problems.

Death in Transitional Asia: 11-Year All-Cause Mortality in the Thai Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE: Thailand is experiencing a substantial reduction in overall mortality, an ageing society and increasing prevalence of non-communicable diseases. There is an urgent need to understand locally important risk factors for this new disease burden and their distribution. We investigated risk factors for mortality in a large cohort of Thai adults and report on key trends.&#x0D; &#x0D; PARTICIPANTS: A nationwide cohort of 87,151 Thai adults followed up since 2005 with their data records linked to the Thai civil registration system to monitor mortality up to the end of 2016. &#x0D; &#x0D; METHODS: We used logistic regression models to measure associations between a large range of socio-demographic, health behaviour and health status variables and all-cause mortality. &#x0D; &#x0D; RESULTS: 1402 cohort members died between 2005 and 2016. In fully-adjusted models higher income, female sex, and higher education had the strongest protective effects against mortality. Normal body weight also protected (AOR 0.71 [0.52-0.96] with Obese as reference). Heavy smoking (AOR 1.48 [1.29-1.70]), and regular alcohol consumption (AOR 1.37 [1.12-1.68]) were associated with the highest mortality. Experiencing injury in the year proceeding the baseline survey also associated with increased mortality, while urbanising since childhood had a protective effect. &#x0D; &#x0D; CONCLUSION: This study adds to evidence regarding risks for all-cause mortality in Thailand. Results indicate the need for Thailand to maintain successful tobacco control programs and to address the effects of increased alcohol consumption. The protective effect of higher education is particularly important in Thailand given the growing proportion of the population who are finishing high school and moving to higher education.

Education amplifies brain atrophy effect on cognitive decline: implications for cognitive reserve.

Level of education is often regarded as a proxy for cognitive reserve in older adults. This implies that brain degeneration has a smaller effect on cognitive decline in those with more education, but this has not been directly tested in previous research. We examined how education, quantitative magnetic resonance imaging-based measurement of brain degeneration, and their interaction affect cognitive decline in diverse older adults spanning the spectrum from normal cognition to dementia. Gray matter atrophy was strongly related to cognitive decline. While education was not related to cognitive decline, brain atrophy had a stronger effect on cognitive decline in those with more education. Importantly, high education was associated with slower decline in individuals with lesser atrophy but with faster decline in those with greater atrophy. This moderation effect was observed in Hispanics (who had high heterogeneity of education) but not in African-Americans or Caucasians. These results suggest that education is an indicator of cognitive reserve in individuals with low levels of brain degeneration, but the protective effect of higher education is rapidly depleted as brain degeneration progresses.

Educational Attainment and Smoking Status in a National Sample of American Adults; Evidence for the Blacks’ Diminished Return

Background: Although higher socioeconomic status (SES) indicators such as educational attainment are linked with health behaviors, the Blacks’ Diminished Return theory posits that the protective effects of SES are systemically smaller for Blacks than Whites. Aims: To explore the Black/White differences in the association between education and smoking. Methods: This cross-sectional study used the Health Information National Trends Survey (HINTS) 2017 (n = 3217). HINTS is a national survey of American adults. The current analysis included 2277 adults who were either Whites (n = 1868; 82%) or Blacks (n = 409; 18%). The independent variable was educational attainment, and the dependent variables were ever and current (past 30-day) smoking. Demographic factors (age and gender) were covariates. Race was the focal moderator. Results: In the pooled sample, higher educational attainment was associated with lower odds of ever and current smoking. Race interacted with the effects of higher educational attainment on current smoking, suggesting a stronger protective effect of higher education against current smoking for Whites than Blacks. Race did not interact with the effect of educational attainment on odds of ever smoking. Conclusions: In line with previous research in the United States, education is more strongly associated with health and health behaviors in Whites than Blacks. Smaller protective effects of education on health behaviors may be due to the existing racism across institutions such as the education system and labor market.

Medication Side Effect Profiles in PD Patients in a Safety-Net Hospital

Background: Compulsive behavior, dyskinesias, motor fluctuations, and hallucinations are common Parkinson’s disease (PD) medication side effects. These are yet to be examined in relation to race and level of education. The goal of this analysis was to identify socioeconomic or clinical variables that are associated with compulsive behavior, dyskinesias, motor fluctuations, and hallucinations in patients in a safety-net hospital. Methods: A movement disorder patient database containing 452 patients with idiopathic PD was analyzed for differences in PD medication side effects using univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis. Race, sex, and level of education were evaluated as possible confounders. Results: A greater proportion of the patients in this study were Caucasian males. The only variable associated with compulsive behavior was age, with higher age having a protective effect (p = 0.0336). Disease duration (defined as time since the onset of symptoms), diagnosis duration (time since formal diagnosis), and level of education were significantly associated with dyskinesia inunivariate analysis (p =< 0.0001, <0.0001, 0.1236 respectively). However, diagnosis duration was the only variable significantly associated with dyskinesia in multivariate analysis (p = 0.0038), in addition to a borderline significant association when comparing individuals with graduate degree to those who had completed high school education or less (p = 0.0599), with a protective effect of higher education. Disease duration, diagnosis duration, and use of monoamineoxidase inhibitors were also significantly associated with motor fluctuations in the univariate analysis, while only diagnosis duration was significantly associated with motor fluctuations in multivariate analysis (p = 0.0035) with longer diagnosis duration associated with higher risk of motor fluctuations. Age, disease duration, and diagnosis duration were associated with an increased risk of hallucinations in univariate analysis (p =< 0.0001, <0.0001, <0.0001 respectively), but age and disease duration were the only variables associated with hallucinations in multivariate analysis (p = 0.0009, 0.1196 respectively). Race was not associated with a higher risk of compulsive behavior, dyskinesias, motor fluctuations, or hallucinations. Conclusion: Compulsive behavior, dyskinesias, motor fluctuations, and hallucinations in our PD population may be associated with differences in socioeconomic status and access to care, but not with differences in race.

Variation in the Protective Effect of Higher Education Against Depression.

Numerous studies document that higher education is associated with a reduced likelihood of depression. The protective effects of higher education, however, are known to vary across population subgroups. This study tests competing theories for who is likely to obtain a greater protective benefit from a college degree against depression through an analysis of data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health and recently developed methods for analyzing heterogeneous treatment effects involving the use of propensity scores. The analysis examines how the effects of two "treatments" (at least some college education and attaining at least a four-year college degree) on latent depressive symptomology vary by background disadvantage, as indicated by having a low propensity for completing some college or attaining a four-year college degree. Results indicate that people from disadvantaged backgrounds realize a greater protective effect of higher education, either completing some college or attaining a four-year degree, against depressive symptomology than people from advantaged backgrounds. This pattern is more pronounced for people who attain at least a four-year degree than for people who complete at least some college education.

Educational level and HIV disease progression before and after the introduction of HAART: a cohort study in 989 HIV seroconverters in Spain

ObjectivesTo analyse the effect of educational level on the progression from HIV seroconversion to highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) requirement, HAART initiation, AIDS and death from any cause at different...

HIGHER EDUCATION AND CRIMINAL OFFENDING OVER THE LIFE COURSE

Educational attainment and school bonding are established predictors of delinquent behavior. In spite of an abundance of research on the relationship between education and delinquency, there is little research that examines the impact of education on stability and change in criminal offending over the life course. This dearth of research is surprising given the increasing significance of post-secondary education in contemporary society and the prominence of the life course approach in the study of crime. The current study uses seven waves of data from the National Youth Survey to examine the impact of higher education on criminal offending over the life course. Findings indicate that college attendance and investment in higher education are negatively associated with criminal offending in adulthood. In addition, the protective effect of higher education is stronger for individuals who were more delinquent during adolescence. Study limitations and future research needs are discussed.

A community-based study of tobacco smoke exposure among inner-city children with asthma in Chicago

Little is known about the level of tobacco exposure and the factors that influence exposure in children with persistent asthma. We sought to measure tobacco smoke exposure and determine factors associated with exposure in a large urban sample of asthmatic children. This cross-sectional study is based on a community-based cohort of 482 children (8-14 years old) with persistent asthma. Caregiver and household tobacco use were reported by the caregiver. Child tobacco smoke exposure was assessed by using salivary cotinine level. Multivariate linear regression of log-transformed salivary cotinine levels were used to characterize the relationship between smoke exposure and caregiver, household, and demographic characteristics. We used a multivariate logistic model to characterize associations with caregiver smoking. Overall, 68.5% of children had tobacco smoke exposure. Compared with nonexposed children, those exposed to smoking by a caregiver or another household member had cotinine levels that were 1.68 (95% CI, 1.45-1.94) or 1.40 (95% CI, 1.22-1.62) times higher, respectively. Compared with Hispanic children, African American and white/other children had 1.55 (95% CI, 1.16-2.06) and 1.59 (95% CI, 1.18-2.14) times higher cotinine levels, respectively. Child exposure was also associated with caregiver depression symptoms (odds ratio, 1.01; 95% CI, 1.01-1.02), and higher household income was protective (odds ratio, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.56-0.95). Independent predictors of caregiver smoking included a protective effect of higher education (odds ratio, 0.35; 95% CI, 0.15-0.83) and a positive association with potential problematic drug/alcohol use (odds ratio, 2.30; 95% CI, 1.39-3.83). Tobacco smoke exposure was high in this urban sample of asthmatic children. Caregiver smoking was strongly associated with child exposure and also was associated with lower socioeconomic status, non-Hispanic ethnicity, and depression symptoms.