Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale Research Articles

Opioid Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale (OPBSS): Development and psychometric evaluation.

Protective behavioral strategies (PBS) are behaviors that individuals use to mitigate harm related to risky behaviors. Though measures have been validated to assess alcohol- and cannabis-specific PBS use, an opioid-specific PBS measure has yet to be validated. The present study developed and validated a tool to assess the extent of PBS employed by individuals who use licit and/or illicit opioids. We recruited a community sample of adults who endorsed past-month opioid use (n = 345) via online platforms to complete a baseline survey, and 277 participants (80.2%) also completed the 1-month follow-up survey. From PBS measures of other substances, harm reduction strategies found in the literature, and expert feedback, we developed the 60-item Opioid Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale (OPBSS). We removed 14 items based on item and exploratory factor analyses, resulting in 46 retained items. A two-factor solution was supported: strategies focused on managing opioid use (Controlled Opioid Use) and preventing opioid-related harm (Serious Harm Reduction). The OPBSS subscales demonstrated high internal consistencies, fair-to-excellent test-retest reliability, significant positive associations with PBS measures for other substances, and robust associations with risky opioid use and opioid-related negative consequences, both concurrently and prospectively when controlling for other opioid characteristics. The 46-item OPBSS has promising psychometric properties. Importantly, more opioid PBS predicted less risky opioid use and related consequences, suggesting that opioid PBS may be a beneficial opioid prevention effort. However, additional psychometric work is needed to determine which PBS are most suitable for populations with distinct opioid use patterns. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The indirect effects of self-regulation on the association of social support with increased protective drinking behavior and decreased alcohol problems in a predominantly Hispanic college student sample.

Research suggests that self-regulation, which refers to one's ability to manage a behavior, and social support are related to alcohol use. Other research suggests that social support may serve as a precursor to self-regulation and health-promoting behaviors. We examined whether self-regulation has an indirect effect on the association between social support and both protective drinking behaviors and alcohol problems. A random sample of students at a Hispanic Serving Institution completed an online survey, which included sociodemographic questions, the Multidimensional Perceived Social Support Scale, the Short Self-Regulation Questionnaire, the Protective Behavioral Strategies (PBS) Scale, and the Rutgers Alcohol Problem Index. Undergraduate students (n = 192) who reported drinking in the last month were included in the analysis. A path analysis using Mplus8 was conducted to investigate the relationships among social support, self-regulation, PBS, and alcohol-related problems. The sample was mostly female (58.9) and of Hispanic ethnicity (89.6). Analyses showed that social support had a significant positive association with PBS and a significant negative association with alcohol-related problems. When self-regulation was added to the models, these associations were no longer significant, and self-regulation had a significant indirect effect on the relationship between social support and both PBS and alcohol-related problems. The results of the current cross-sectional study suggest that a viable hypothesis in future longitudinal studies is that self-regulation is a mechanism by which social support increases PBS and reduces alcohol problems. Future research should assess longitudinally both the mediating effects of self-regulation between social support and drinking outcomes and potential moderators, such as ethnicity.

Spanish Adaptation of the Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale-20 (S-PBSS-20) and Evaluation of its Psychometric Properties in University Students.

Protective behavioral strategies (PBS) have shown utility in reducing alcohol-related negative consequences. The Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale (PBSS) is one of the most widely used and well-validated instruments for evaluating these strategies. However, a Spanish adaptation of this or any other measure of PBS is not available. We aimed to provide a Spanish version of PBSS-20 and examine its psychometric properties. We recruited 538 undergraduate students from three Spanish universities (mean age = 21.2; females = 78%). Measures included the Spanish-PBSS-20 (S-PBSS-20), Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire (YAACQ), Daily Drinking Questionnaire, and frequency of alcohol use, drunkenness, and binge drinking. Our results support the use of the original 3-factor structure of the PBSS-20. Internal consistency reliability ranged between 0.71-0.77, and evidence of validity was provided according to the expected relationships with other variables. Exploratory factor analyses provided evidence of convergent/discriminant validity of S-PBSS-20. The results suggest that PBSS-20 is a useful instrument for assessing protective behavioral strategies in alcohol users. The S-PBSS-20 could be useful for research on alcohol-related protective behavioral strategies and consequences, and could also inform the design of educational interventions for promoting the use of protective strategies and reducing alcohol-related negative consequences.

Is there a higher-order factor of alcohol-related protective behavioral strategies? Further analysis of the Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale’s (PBSS) factor structure

Background Although it is a widely used instrument, there is still no consensus related to the factor structure of the Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale (PBSS), particularly the function of a higher-order protective behavioral strategies (PBS) factor is needed to be explored. The present research aimed to test and validate competing measurement models of the PBSS, with a special focus on exploring the role of a higher-order PBS factor. Method Two independent samples of university students (between 18-29 years of age) who reported alcohol use in the past 12 months were used. Overall, 327 and 488 participants were included in the present study (females: 68% and 71%). The questionnaire assessed excessive alcohol consumption and PBS use. Results Based on a series of confirmatory factor analyses, the second-order factor model with a higher order factor and four first-order factors presented the most parsimonious solution and closest fit to the data in both samples. Validation analyses indicated that the higher-order factor of PBS use and the first order factor of manner of drinking (MOD) and stopping/limiting drinking-mixing (SLD-M) were consistently associated with lower level of excessive alcohol use. Conclusions Present findings supported the role of a higher-order factor of PBS use which might represent a general measure of PBS. First-order PBS factors showed divergent harm-reduction capacity: MOD and SLD-M rather than Planned limits strategies (SLD-P) were associated with more beneficial alcohol use-related outcomes.

Measurement Invariance of the Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale Across Racial Groups

The purpose of this study was to assess measurement equivalence of the 15-item Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale (PBSS) across White and Black college students. Results partially supported measurement equivalence across racial groups. Clinicians and researchers should be cautious in using the PBSS to make comparisons between White and Black students.

Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale-20: Psychometric properties of a French and German version among young males in Switzerland.

The Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale (PBSS-20) is one of the most commonly used measures of engagement in protective behavioral strategies (PBS). This research aimed to examine the psychometric properties of a French and German version of the PBSS-20 in a large sample of young males in Switzerland. The sample included 5,017 young males (mean age=25.44) participating in the Cohort Study on Substance Use Risk Factors in Switzerland. Measures of PBS use, total drinks per week, and alcohol-related consequences were used from a second follow-up assessment. Confirmatory factor analysis testing different models previously documented in the literature provided initial support for a four-factor model. Fit statistics indicated that this model adequately reflects the structure of data. Further findings also provided support for adequate internal consistency and for convergent validity of this four-factor model, whereas metric-but not scalar-measurement invariance across linguistic regions was demonstrated. Although further research testing measurement invariance across linguistic regions and gender is warranted, results of the current study suggest that the French and German PBSS-20 is reliable and that it may represent a promising research and clinical tool that can be used in both French- and German-speaking countries.

Crossover Effects of Protective Behavioural Strategies for Drinking on Gambling Consequences Among College Gamblers with Alcohol or Drug Abuse.

Protective behavioural strategies (PBS) for drinking are behaviours that individuals engage in to reduce the amount they drink and drinking-related consequences. To date, little is known about associations that PBS might have with other risky behaviours that frequently coincide with drinking, such as gambling. The goal of this study was to examine the associations between three subscales of the Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale (PBSS) and gambling consequences in a college sample of gamblers who also met criteria for alcohol or drug abuse. We hypothesized that engaging in more drinking PBS would be associated with lower levels of gambling consequences. A sample of 316 students (55% female) completed an online survey and met criteria for problematic gambling behaviour (3 or more on the South Oaks Gambling Screen and 1 or more consequences on the Gambling Problem Index). Those endorsing a higher score on the Serious Harm Reduction subscale (but not the Stopping or Limiting Drinking or Manner of Drinking subscales) showed a lower level of lifetime gambling consequences, suggesting a crossover effect. Strategies to reduce serious harm represent a treatment target that could potentially reduce negative consequences associated with both drinking and gambling.

A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale among OEF/OIF Veterans

IntroductionMilitary veterans of the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq (OEF/OIF/OND) are at-risk for increased alcohol consumption and alcohol-related consequences. The Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale (PBSS) has been shown to be a reliable and valid measure of assessing strategies to facilitate more responsible drinking and to reduce alcohol-related harm among college student populations. The purpose of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the PBSS among the OEF/OIF veteran population. MethodParticipants were 251 veterans (94% male; 83% White; M age=31.77years) who were participating in a larger alcohol intervention trial and reported consuming alcohol within the past 30days. ResultsConfirmatory Factor Analyses indicated the model fit of the PBSS was similar to college student samples. Although a confirmatory three-factor model best fits the data, model fit indices were slightly below commonly accepted guidelines. All PBSS subscales were negatively correlated with alcohol outcomes. Greater use of Manner of Drinking (MOD) and Stopping/Limiting Drinking (SLD) strategies were associated with less alcohol consumption and lower peak BAC. Greater use of MOD strategies was associated with less alcohol-related problems. ConclusionsFindings provide initial support for use of the PBSS among OEF/OIF veterans. Strategies aimed at Stopping/Limiting Drinking and the Manner of Drinking may be more effective with a veteran sample. Additional studies examining the external validity of this measure are encouraged.

Fitting in and standing out: increasing the use of alcohol protective behavioral strategies with a deviance regulation intervention.

Heavy alcohol use remains a consistent public health concern on college campuses. The current pilot study used deviance regulation theory (DRT) to modify protective behavioral strategies (PBS) among college student drinkers to reduce alcohol use and alcohol-related consequences. The sample was comprised of current college student drinkers (n = 76; 53.95% female) ranging in age from 18-24 (M = 19.29, SD = 1.42). Participants were randomly assigned to receive a positively or negatively framed message. They then reported on use of alcohol PBS (via the Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale), alcohol consumption (via the Modified Daily Drinking Questionnaire), and alcohol-related consequences (via the Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire) each week for 6 weeks. Among drinkers with low PBS use norms, a positively, versus a negatively, framed message resulted in increased PBS use and consequently less alcohol consumption and fewer alcohol-related consequences. Among drinkers with high PBS use norms, a negatively, versus positively, framed message resulted in increased PBS use and consequently lower alcohol consumption and fewer alcohol-related consequences. However, these effects were only relevant among those who strongly believed the DRT frame. Findings suggest assigning drinkers to frames based on perceived PBS use norms and increasing belief in the frame may be 1 approach to increasing responsible drinking patterns among college students. Furthermore, the current data suggests important boundary conditions for norm-based interventions.

The Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale-20: improved content validity of the Serious Harm Reduction subscale.

Excessive drinking in college leads to serious harms, but students who use protective behavioral strategies (PBS) avoid negative consequences by drinking in a safer manner. This study aimed to increase the content validity of the Serious Harm Reduction (SHR) subscale of the most widely used measure of PBS, the Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale (PBSS: Martens et al., 2005). An initial item pool was developed from literature on college student drinking, existing lists of drinking control strategies, and an online pilot survey of college students (N = 1,832). Items were also evaluated by focus groups of experts and members of the target population. Next, 1,376 students (57.9% women; Mage = 18.5 years; 86.3% White) completed questionnaires online. A subset (n = 170; 12.4%) completed a second survey 4-6 weeks later to examine test-retest reliability and criterion-related validity. The remaining students (n = 1,206) were divided into equal development and validation samples. Analyses included exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of the development sample, factor structure replication, and gender invariance testing in the validity sample. Results of this process produced the PBSS-20, with an expanded SHR scale of eight items. The revised SHR scale demonstrated improved internal consistency and was associated with a broader range of alcohol-related negative consequences at follow-up. Given its focus on reducing serious harms, the SHR scale is arguably the most clinically relevant PBSS factor, and those who use this measure will benefit from the expanded breadth of SHR content and improved psychometric properties of the PBSS-20.

Testing measurement invariance of the Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale in college men and women.

This study tested whether the measurement parameters of the Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale (PBSS; Martens et al., 2005) were equivalent for men and women in a college student sample. Multi-group confirmatory factor analyses tested whether a similar 3-factor latent structure was shared across gender groups and whether item origins (i.e., thresholds) and the strength of associations between individual items and latent factors (i.e., factor loadings) were equivalent across gender groups. Multiple indicators multiple causes (MIMIC) models tested whether gender differences in measurement parameters were explained by drinking patterns among college men and women. Results evidenced significant measurement bias (i.e., non-invariant measurement parameters) across gender groups at both the factor structure and individual item level. In addition, MIMIC models suggested that gender differences in item loadings and thresholds were not better explained by discrepancies in drinking patterns among male and female college students. Findings indicate that gender differences in latent factor scores may reflect measurement bias rather than true mean differences between gender groups, restricting meaningful comparisons of PBSS scores between college men and women. Implications for the assessment of specific strategies as well as clinical interventions among college students that include components on protective behavioral strategies are discussed.

Development and psychometric evaluation of the Revised Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale.

Psychometrically sound measures of the use of protective behavioral strategies are only in a development stage at this point. One such measure, the Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale (PBSS), has shown particular promise in this area. This study aimed to build on the PBSS by (a) evaluating revisions to the measure intended to yield more reliable scores from the serious harm reduction (SHR) subscale and (b) evaluating the factor structure of the revised measure and the stability of the factor structure across White non-Hispanics and African Americans and between women and men using multigroup confirmatory factor analysis. Three additional items were added to the SHR subscale, which improved its functioning. A 2-factor model best fit the data, and the factor structure of the measure was invariant across White non-Hispanic and African American men and women. Suggestions for further refinement of the measure and future research are provided.

The assessment of protective behavioral strategies: Comparing prediction and factor structures across measures.

Protective behavioral strategies (PBS), or drinking control strategies, are specific behaviors one can utilize to minimize the harmful consequences of alcohol consumption. As there is not currently a standard measure of PBS, the goal of the present study was to examine the factor structure and concurrent validity of three scales designed to assess PBS: Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale (PBSS; Martens, M. P., Ferrier, A. G., Sheehy, M. J., Corbett, K., Anderson, D. A., & Simmons, A., 2005 Development of the Protective Behavioral Strategies Survey. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 66, 698-705), Protective Behavioral Strategies Measure (Novik, M. G., & Boekeloo, B. O., 2011, Dimensionality and psychometric analysis of an alcohol protective behavioral strategies scale. Journal of Drug Education, 41, 65-78. doi:10.2190/DE.41.1.d), and the Strategy Questionnaire (SQ); (Sugarman, D. E., & Carey, K. B., 2007), The relationship between drinking control strategies and college student alcohol use. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 21, 338-345. doi:10.1037/0893-164X.21.3.338). In a sample of college students (n=291), we used confirmatory factor analysis to examine the proposed factor structures of each scale. Although the theorized three-factor structure fit the data moderately well for the PBSS, the theorized factor structures for the Protective Behavioral Strategies Measure and SQ did not fit the data well. Further, the composite scores from the PBSS were all significantly negatively correlated with alcohol-related problems, whereas the composites of the SQ were not significantly correlated with alcohol-related problems. Although we have evidence in favor of 1 PBS measure over others, we discuss broader issues related to assessment of PBS. We consider the different instructions, response scales, and time intervals for various PBS measures in terms of how they relate to the advancement of PBS research.

Do Protective Behavioral Strategies Moderate the Relationship Between Negative Urgency and Alcohol-Related Outcomes Among Intercollegiate Athletes?

The purpose of this study was to examine the moderating effect of protective behavioral strategies on the relationship between negative urgency and alcohol outcomes. Participants were college students who endorsed participating in club/intramural or varsity athletics. The students (N = 234; 73.9% female) completed measures of negative urgency, protective behavioral strategies, alcohol use, and alcohol-related problems. Separate hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted for each subscale of the Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale to test for moderation. Results indicated that protective behavioral strategies aimed at serious harm reduction moderated the relationship between negative urgency and alcohol use, whereas strategies aimed at avoiding excessive or rapid drinking moderated the relationship between negative urgency and alcohol-related problems. Strategies that involved planning drinking activities in advance did not moderate the relationship between negative urgency and alcohol outcomes. The current investigation provides further evidence for the role of protective behavioral strategies against known risk factors for alcohol use and related problems. Further, the paper suggests that type of strategy used matters when attempting to mitigate the relationship between negative urgency and alcohol outcomes. Limitations and future directions are discussed.

Dimensionality and psychometric analysis of an alcohol protective behavioral strategies scale.

The current study examined the dimensionality of a protective behavioral strategies (PBS) measure among undergraduate, predominantly freshmen (92.5%) college students reporting recent alcohol use (n = 320). Participants completed a web-based survey assessing 22 PBS items. Factor analyses determined the underlying factor structure of the items. Congruence of the factor structure among gender and racial sub-groups was examined by rotating the sub-groups' matrices via the Procrustes rotation method. Reliability analyses determined internal consistency. A 2-factor solution was retained utilizing 17 of the original items. Both PBS sub-scales (Limits and Avoidance) had acceptable internal consistency across all samples. This PBS Scale was determined to be bi-dimensional and reliable. The dimensions suggest two underlying foci: ways to limit alcohol intake and ways to avoid alcohol intake while socializing. Practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Measuring alcohol-related protective behavioral strategies among college students: Further examination of the Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale.

Heavy drinking among college students has been recognized as a public health problem on American college campuses (e.g., R. Hingson, T. Heeren, M. Winter, & H. Wechsler, 2005). Recently, protective behavioral strategies, or cognitive-behavioral strategies that can be implemented when using alcohol to reduce consumption and resulting negative consequences, have been shown to be associated with less alcohol use and fewer alcohol-related problems (e.g., S. L. Benton et al., 2004; M. P. Martens et al., 2005). The purpose of the present study was to conduct additional psychometric work on a measure designed to assess the use of such strategies: the Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale (PBSS; M. P. Martens et al., 2005). Data were collected on 505 undergraduate students from 2 universities who reported having consumed alcohol at least once in the past 30 days. Results of a confirmatory factor analysis supported the hypothesized 3-factor version of the PBSS, and scores on each subscale were correlated in the expected direction with both alcohol use and alcohol-related problems. Thus, the PBSS appears to be reliable and valid for use among college student drinkers.