Protection Of Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems Research Articles

True Size Matters for Conservation: A Robust Method to Determine the Size of Deep-Sea Coral Reefs Shows They Are Typically Small on Seamounts in the Southwest Pacific Ocean

Protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems (VME) is a critical goal for marine conservation. Yet, in many deep-sea settings, where quantitative data are typically sparse, it is challenging to correctly identify the location and size of VMEs. Here we assess the sensitivity of a method to identify coral reef VMEs based on bottom cover and abundance of the stony coral Solenosmilia variabilis on deep seamounts, using image data from a 2018 large survey off Tasmania, Australia. Whilst there was some detectable influence of varying coral cover and the abundance of live coral heads, the distribution of coral reef VMEs was not substantially shifted by changing these criteria or altering the attributes of a moving window used to spatially aggregate coral patches. Whilst applying stricter criteria for classifying VMEs predictably produced smaller areas of coral reef VME, these differences are not sizeable and were often negligible. A model prediction of the area of suitable habitat for coral reef in the Tasmanian area was much greater than that estimated in this study. Coral reef VMEs formed large contiguous ‘blankets’, mainly on the peaks and flanks of seamounts, but were absent from the continental slope where S. variabilis occurred at low abundance (cover) and/or had no living colonies. The true size of the Tasmanian coral reef VMEs ranged from 0.02 to 1.16 km2; this was relatively large compared to reefs of S. variabilis mapped on New Zealand seamounts, but is small compared to the scales used for regional model predictions of suitable habitat (typically 1 km2 grid cell), much smaller than the smallest units of management interest (100s – 1000s km²). That the method is not overly sensitive to the choice of criteria is highly encouraging in the context of designing spatial conservation measures that are robust, although its broader application, including to other VME indicator taxa, needs to be substantiated by scenario testing in different environments. Importantly, it should encourage uptake by the broader community (e.g. fishing and mining sectors) and forms the basis for better predictive VME models at larger spatial scales and beyond single taxa.

The use of spatially explicit genetic variation data from four deep-sea sponges to inform the protection of Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems

The United Nations General Assembly has called for greater protection of the world’s deep-sea species and of features such as Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems (VMEs). Sponges are important components of VMEs and information about their spatially explicit genetic diversity can inform management decisions concerning the placement of protected areas. We employed a spatially explicit hierarchical testing framework to examine genetic variation amongst archived samples of four deep-sea sponges in the New Zealand region. For Poecillastra laminaris Sollas 1886, significant mitochondrial (COI, Cytb) and nuclear DNA (microsatellite) genetic differences were observed between provinces, amongst north-central-south regions and amongst geomorphic features. For Penares sp. no significant structure was detected (COI, 12S) across the same areas. For both Neoaulaxinia persicum Kelly, 2007 (COI, 12S) and Pleroma menoui Lévi & Lévi 1983 (COI) there was no evidence of genetic differentiation within their northern only regional distributions. Of 10 separate species-by-marker tests for isolation-by-distance and isolation-by-depth, only the isolation-by-depth test for N. persicum for COI was significant. The use of archived samples highlights how historical material may be used to support national and international management decisions. The results are discussed in the broader context of existing marine protected areas, and possible future design of spatial management measures for protecting VMEs in the New Zealand region.

Examining the utility of a decision-support tool to develop spatial management options for the protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems on the high seas around New Zealand

The South Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Organisation (SPRFMO) Convention includes specific provisions to protect vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs). The SPRFMO Commission has determined that the interim measures put in place to protect VMEs should be replaced by an improved system of fishable and closed areas. We used the conservation planning tool Zonation to examine the utility of a decision-support tool to develop spatial management options that balance the protection of VMEs with utilisation of high value areas for fishing. Input data included: habitat suitability maps for VME indicator taxa, and uncertainties associated with these model predictions, for an area of the high seas around New Zealand; naturalness condition, represented by two proxy variables using New Zealand trawl effort data; and value to the New Zealand fishery using trawl catch data for two gear types and three time-periods. Running scenario analyses with these data allowed for an understanding of the effect of varying the input data on the spatial prioritisation of areas for VME conservation. The analyses also allowed for the cost to fishing to be determined, in terms of the amount of the trawl catch footprint (normalised to the catch) lost if high priority areas for VME indicator taxa are protected. In most scenarios, the cost to fishing was low given the relatively high proportion of suitable habitat for VME indicator taxa that could be protected. The main outcome of the present study is a demonstration of the practical utility of using available data, including modelled data, and the Zonation decision-support tool to develop future options for the spatial management of the SPRFMO area. Suggestions are also made for improvements in input data for future analyses.

The Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization Roadmap for the development and implementation of an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries: structure, state of development, and challenges

The Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) Roadmap is the general framework aimed toward implementing an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries (EAF) in NAFO. The core principles are: a) the approach has to be objective-driven, b) it should consider long-term ecosystem sustainability, c) it must be place-based, and d) the consequences of trade-offs in managing human activities have to be explicitly defined. The Roadmap is not a fixed plan; it evolves as different components are developed, refined, and implemented. Core elements of the Roadmap include the identification of ecosystem-based management units, a hierarchical approach to define exploitation rates by considering ecosystem, multispecies, and stock level sustainability, and the integration of impacts on benthic communities. The modular design of the plan has allowed NAFO to start implementing some components (e.g. closures to bottom fishing for the protection of Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems), while work on others is still ongoing (e.g. multispecies modelling). Even though the Roadmap is far from being fully implemented, NAFO has made important progress towards EAF over the last decade. This paper summarizes the Roadmap structure and the current level of implementation, describes some of the challenges faced, and examines those still ahead.

Connectivity modelling of areas closed to protect vulnerable marine ecosystems in the northwest Atlantic

Over the course of the past decade, in response to United Nations General Assembly resolutions calling for the protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs), the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization has closed 14 areas around the high-seas portion of Grand Bank and Flemish Cap to protect deep-sea coral and sponge habitats from impacts by bottom-contact fishing gears. Structural and functional connectivity for those areas were not explicitly considered in the area-selection process. We applied a particle-tracking model in each of four seasons to produce dispersal trajectories at the surface and 100 m from start points within the closed areas. These were run in forecast and hindcast modes to identify dispersal kernels. Currents at the surface, 100 m, 1000 m and “on bottom” were examined under an independent model (NEMO) to infer structural connectivity among the areas at relevant depths not available in the particle-tracking model. Spawning times and planktonic larval duration of the dominant sponges, sea pens and gorgonian corals were then considered to evaluate the trajectories as bio-physical models, while species distribution models identified potential source populations from hindcast projections. Five of the 14 areas, including the three largest closures, showed particle retention, with three others showing retention within 10 km of their boundaries. The regional pattern of currents and their topographic forcing emerged as a strong structuring agent. A system of weakly-connected closed areas to protect sea pen VMEs on Flemish Cap was identified. The conducted approach illustrates the added value of assessing/modelling networking properties when designing MPAs.

Precautionary Management and the Development of Future Fishing Opportunities: The International Regulation of New and Exploratory Fisheries

Abstract The extensive pressures upon current commercial fisheries, compounded by the projected impacts of climate change and associated processes on marine ecosystems, will increasingly displace elements of future fishing effort towards new locations, target species and techniques. For transboundary stocks, where a new or exploratory fishery is contemplated, Article 6(6) of the un Fish Stocks Agreement 1995 mandates cautious conservation measures to acquire sufficient catch data to assess the impacts of fishing on the stock and surrounding ecosystem. Thereafter, if appropriate, measures may be adopted to facilitate the gradual development of the fishery and its eventual transition to commercial management. However, there has been minimal analysis of the regulatory requirements for emergent fisheries during this interim stage. This article accordingly collates and evaluates the current international law and practice towards new and exploratory fisheries, with particular reference to Antarctic developments and the protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems from proliferating deep-sea fisheries.

Development and characterization of ten highly polymorphic microsatellite markers for the demosponge Poecillastra laminaris (Sollas)

Poecillastra laminaris (Sollas) (Order Tetractinellida, Family Vulcanellidae) is a demosponge widely distributed on seamounts and other habitats around the New Zealand region. In order to investigate its genetic structure and connectivity, ten polymorphic microsatellite markers were developed and tested on all 54 individuals in the NIWA Invertebrate Collection (NIC), Wellington, using low-cost M13 labelling. High quality results were obtained for 34 individuals. The microsatellite loci were highly polymorphic, with ten to 27 alleles per locus (mean ± SD of 16.2 ± 5.1). Expected and observed heterozygosities of these loci were 0.786 to 0.952 and 0.550 to 0.926, respectively. These microsatellite markers will be used for population genetic studies of P. laminaris, in particular relating to the identification of metapopulations and barriers to gene flow. Results will inform spatial management planning for the protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems.

Unravelling the Intricacies of Marine Biodiversity Conservation and its Sustainable Use: An Overview of Global Frameworks and Applicable Concepts

Conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity under international law is marked by a myriad of treaties and soft-law instruments applicable to areas within and beyond national jurisdiction. The most relevant global treaties in this context are the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, its Fish Stocks Agreement, and the UN Convention on Biological Diversity. In order to assess the state of play of conservation, including with respect to the creation of marine protected areas, and the sustainable use of marine biodiversity under international law, this chapter examines the inter-relationship between these conventions in light of recent developments in international policy and law. Some of these developments include the protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems by regional fisheries management organisations, the CBD description of ecologically or biologically significant marine areas, as well as relevant Aichi Biodiversity Targets. In this context, governance gaps, especially concerning marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction, are also highlighted, along with opportunities for achieving and mainstreaming marine biodiversity conservation in a comprehensive manner towards sustainable development.

Kernel density surface modelling as a means to identify significant concentrations of vulnerable marine ecosystem indicators.

The United Nations General Assembly Resolution 61/105, concerning sustainable fisheries in the marine ecosystem, calls for the protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems (VME) from destructive fishing practices. Subsequently, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) produced guidelines for identification of VME indicator species/taxa to assist in the implementation of the resolution, but recommended the development of case-specific operational definitions for their application. We applied kernel density estimation (KDE) to research vessel trawl survey data from inside the fishing footprint of the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) Regulatory Area in the high seas of the northwest Atlantic to create biomass density surfaces for four VME indicator taxa: large-sized sponges, sea pens, small and large gorgonian corals. These VME indicator taxa were identified previously by NAFO using the fragility, life history characteristics and structural complexity criteria presented by FAO, along with an evaluation of their recovery trajectories. KDE, a non-parametric neighbour-based smoothing function, has been used previously in ecology to identify hotspots, that is, areas of relatively high biomass/abundance. We present a novel approach of examining relative changes in area under polygons created from encircling successive biomass categories on the KDE surface to identify “significant concentrations” of biomass, which we equate to VMEs. This allows identification of the VMEs from the broader distribution of the species in the study area. We provide independent assessments of the VMEs so identified using underwater images, benthic sampling with other gear types (dredges, cores), and/or published species distribution models of probability of occurrence, as available. For each VME indicator taxon we provide a brief review of their ecological function which will be important in future assessments of significant adverse impact on these habitats here and elsewhere.

A systematic approach towards the identification and protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems

The United Nations General Assembly in 2006 and 2009 adopted resolutions that call for the identification and protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs) from significant adverse impacts of bottom fishing. While general criteria have been produced, there are no guidelines or protocols that elaborate on the process from initial identification through to the protection of VMEs. Here, based upon an expert review of existing practices, a 10-step framework is proposed: (1) Comparatively assess potential VME indicator taxa and habitats in a region; (2) determine VME thresholds; (3) consider areas already known for their ecological importance; (4) compile information on the distributions of likely VME taxa and habitats, as well as related environmental data; (5) develop predictive distribution models for VME indicator taxa and habitats; (6) compile known or likely fishing impacts; (7) produce a predicted VME naturalness distribution (areas of low cumulative impacts); (8) identify areas of higher value to user groups; (9) conduct management strategy evaluations to produce trade-off scenarios; (10) review and re-iterate, until spatial management scenarios are developed that fulfil international obligations and regional conservation and management objectives. To date, regional progress has been piecemeal and incremental. The proposed 10-step framework combines these various experiences into a systematic approach.

An evaluation of benthic community structure in and around the Sackville Spur closed area (Northwest Atlantic) in relation to the protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems

Abstract Barrio Froján, C. R. S., MacIsaac, K. G., McMillan, A. K., del Mar Sacau Cuadrado, M., Large, P. A., Kenny, A. J., Kenchington, E., and de Cárdenas González, E. 2012. An evaluation of benthic community structure in and around the Sackville Spur closed area (Northwest Atlantic) in relation to the protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 69: 213–222. The benthic macrofaunal community structure is investigated within and around a closed area at Sackville Spur in the Northwest Atlantic to ascertain whether continued exclusion of bottom fishing can be justified. This and other similar closed areas have been introduced by the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organisation (NAFO) to protect areas of likely occurrence of taxa that are indicative of vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs) from the damaging effects of bottom-contact fishing gear. Results reveal subtle yet significant differences in macrofaunal assemblage composition and community structure between inside and outside the closed area, between above and below the 1200-m depth contour (i.e. the historical depth limit of fishing), and between areas where dense sponge spicule mats are either present or absent. Differences were observed in many assemblage metrics; however, the most revealing was the greater abundance, biomass, diversity, and number of VME indicative taxa inside the closed area than outside. Overall community composition is also significantly different between treatments. Depth, sediment temperature, and the proportion of clay within sediments are important in shaping the faunal assemblage. The importance of the effects of fishing is discussed, although it is not possible to ascertain if fishing is the direct cause behind observed differences in the macrofaunal assemblage. A continued closure of the area is recommended, as well as options for streamlining the evaluation process of other closed areas.

Actions taken by fishing Nations towards identification and protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems in the high seas: The Spanish case (Atlantic Ocean)

Abstract In reply to the United Nations General Assembly Resolutions on sustainable fisheries, Spain, either by itself or in collaboration with other Nations, has been carrying out studies on vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs) in the high seas of the Atlantic Ocean (areas beyond national jurisdictions) since 2005. Such studies provide advice to the Spanish Government, the Regional Fisheries Management Organizations and the European Union. This paper presents the multidisciplinary methodology used and summarises the following management results: (i) contribution to identification of cold-water corals and provision of evidence to close part (∼16,000 km2) of the Hatton Bank (NE Atlantic) to bottom fishing; (ii) compilation of an international data base to identify VMEs on the slopes of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, Flemish Pass, and Flemish Cap (NW Atlantic) and to redefine areas currently closed to fishing; (iii) improvement of knowledge about deepwater ecosystems on Walvis Ridge and adjacent seamounts (SE Atlantic) as a pilot project for implementation in this region; and (iv) identification of VMEs and closure of an area (∼41,300 km2) on the high seas of the SW Atlantic. Also discussed are progress and challenges related to identifying and protecting VMEs.