Natural Forest Protection Research Articles

Landscape pattern prediction method based on ANN-CA-Markov coupling model

The simulation and prediction of landscape patterns can provide a reference for the formulation of ecological space security policies and management and control measures. Therefore, it is necessary to use objective and accurate scientific methods to make accurate simulation predictions. In this study, the quantitative prediction of the Markov model is combined with the advantages of the space-time simulation of the CA model, and the artificial neural network (ANN) module is used for calculation and coupling correction. The Kappa coefficient and the FoM (figure of merit) index are used to test the simulation accuracy. Based on this process, the changes of the landscape pattern in Mudanjiang City at three time points in 2000, 2010 and 2020 were analyzed, and the simulation prediction was made based on this. The experimental results show that the CA-Markov model using the ANN module for coupling correction can be tested for accuracy in the study area, and its Kappa coefficient is 0.834 and the FoM index is 0.001. The model meets the requirements of the landscape pattern for the accuracy of simulation and prediction, and the prediction and analysis of the study area is carried out, and the accurate prediction results are obtained.The results of the study were: Looking at the change in landscape pattern over the 20 years from 2000 to 2020, significant changes occurred in the areas of arable land and artificial surface. The total area of arable land decreased by nearly 130 km2, while the area of artificial surface (i.e., built-up land) increased by about 167 km2. The forest area initially decreased and then increased, with an overall increase of approximately 56 km2, while the water and grassland areas first increased and then decreased. In terms of spatial distribution, the changes in agricultural and forest land are mainly concentrated in the central area where urban development is intensive and in the northern forest area. The results of this study are quite important for policy formulation, according to which it was found that human activities, especially urbanization, have led to a decrease in the area of forested land, and therefore the implementation of the natural forest protection policy can lead to a sustained increase in the area of forested land.

Widespread introduced species dominate the urban tree assemblage on the endemic-rich tropical island of São Tomé.

The Afrotropics are experiencing some of the fastest urbanisation rates on the planet but the impact of city growth on their rich and unique biodiversity remains understudied, especially compared to natural baselines. Little is also known about how introduced species influence β-diversity in these contexts, and how patterns coincide with native ranges of species. Here we investigated how tree assemblages of the endemic-rich Afrotropical island of São Tomé differed between urban, rural and natural zones. These were primarily characterised by urban greenspaces, shade plantations, and old-growth forests, respectively. Based on 81 transects, we assessed biodiversity metrics of endemic, native and introduced species. Tree abundance and species richness were highest in the natural zone, where the composition was most different from the urban zone. The tree community of the rural zone was the most uneven and had the least variation among transects, representing the lowest β-diversity. The urban zone was dominated by introduced species (57.7%), while the natural zone hosted almost exclusively native species (93.3%), including many endemics (26.1%). The biogeographic realms that species originated from were particularly diverse in the urban zone, with few species from the Afrotropics. In contrast to native and endemic trees, introduced trees were clearly associated with urban and rural expansion, as they were much more abundant and species-rich in these zones than in the natural zone, facilitating biotic homogenisation. These findings highlight how urban and rural environments are affecting the native tree flora of São Tomé, and the need for conservation measures geared towards globally threatened and endemic tree species. Importantly, these require the protection of natural forests, despite the rising land demands for settlements and agriculture. Ultimately, such action to conserve endemic trees will contribute to global efforts to prevent further biodiversity declines.

Niche of woody plant populations in Picea purpurea community in the upper Taohe River

The niche of plant populations is affected by the environment, species characteristics and anthropogenic disturbance. Picea purpurea, as a major constructive species in the northeastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, had been severely damaged. Although the national project for the protection of natural forests has promoted the recovery of its community, its structure, survival status, development trend, and the factors affecting it are still unclear. We selected P. purpurea communities in Zecha, Dayugou and Yeliguan forest zones at different altitudes and disturbance levels. We analyzed niche characteristics of the woody plants and the relationship between niche and altitude, and disturbance. P. purpurea has absolute advantages as a constructive species, and its population dominance and niche width in the tree layer show a decreasing trend with decreasing altitude, there is niche overlap between all species pairs. In the shrub layer, the dominant species are mostly Caprifoliaceae and Rosaceae besides P. purpurea seedlings, the proportion of species pairs with niche overlap is YLG>ZC>DYG, and all appeared niche divergence and convergence species pairs. In addition, P. purpurea seedlings had niche overlap with most woody species, and this overlap index was the highest. The mean values of the niche overlap index between species in the tree and shrub layers were all YLG>DYG>ZC. The niche overlap index between species in the tree layer was greater than that in the shrub layer in the same forest zones, indicating that the tree layer is more stable than the shrub layer, providing evidence that niche overlap maintains community stability. Regression analyses showed that minimum temperature was the main factor affecting dominance, niche, niche overlap and shrub layer species richness of the P. purpurea population. Disturbance did not significantly affect dominance and niche of P. purpurea seedling populations, but promoted niche differentiation of shrub layer species. We conclude that the P. purpurea community is mainly influenced by altitude and anthropogenic disturbance. Altitude-induced climatic variation fundamentally determines the distinct community composition and population niche. Anthropogenic disturbance has altered habitat heterogeneity and enriched community structure. Furthermore, the P. purpurea populations show a trend towards expansion. Understanding the structure and niche characteristics of P. purpurea communities on different environmental gradients enriches our ideas for implementing vegetation restoration and sustainable forest management in subalpine zones in the context of climate change, and is conducive to improving the conservation capacity of this population or community type.

Whether the Natural Forest Logging Ban Promotes the Improvement and Realization of the Ecosystem Service Value in Northeast China: A Regression Discontinuity Design

To protect forest land from loss and mitigate the global climate crisis, China has proposed a stringent natural forest protection plan, known as China’s natural forest logging ban (NFLB). This policy aims to halt the over-exploitation of natural forests, restore forest ecosystem functions, and promote regional green economic development. This study uses a regression discontinuity design (RDD) model to quantitatively and comprehensively assess the effectiveness of this policy in the key state-owned forest regions in Northeast China. Additionally, it analyzes the heterogeneity and structural characteristics of the policy’s effects on the internal composition of ecological and economic systems. The empirical results are as follows: (1) Ecological and economic impacts: The policy has successfully achieved its ecological objectives by significantly enhancing the quality and value of ecosystem services. However, it has also had a notable adverse impact on economic development, particularly in the timber supply sector, reducing the conversion efficiency of ecosystem service values into economic benefits. (2) Structural analysis: The logging ban effectively promoted the value of various ecosystem services, particularly enhancing regulatory and support functions, with a LATE estimate of approximately 8.47 units. The implementation of the policy caused a negative growth in the output value of supply-oriented ecological products, and the significance level was lower than 0.1. Conversely, the LATE estimates for different types of GDP indicate a negative growth in supply-type GDP due to the policy, with p < 0.1. (3) Heterogeneity: On the one hand, a simplistic and singular approach to logging prohibition may constrain the efficiency of enhancing ecosystem service values. On the other hand, although the policy disrupted the majority of traditional forest enterprise operations, business models focusing on quality and technology improvements were able to mitigate this impact.

Forest Worker Households in the NFPP: Enhancing Sustainable Livelihoods through Capital and Transformation

The persistent conflict between strict conservation and community welfare highlights the growing need to address sustainable livelihoods in forest protection programs. The Natural Forest Protection Program (NFPP) is a comprehensive forest protection program spearheaded by the Chinese government. It is designed to facilitate the conservation and restoration of forest ecosystems through a range of interventions, including logging ban, management, tending, and afforestation efforts. Drawing upon longitudinal micro-level household survey data spanning five consecutive years from 2017 to 2021, this research quantifies the sustainable livelihood levels of frontline participants in the NFPP by examining two dimensions: livelihood capital stock and livelihood transformation capacity. Additionally, it investigates the internal differentiation phenomenon within this cohort. The findings suggest that forest worker households engaged in tasks related to forest management, tending, and afforestation are the frontline participants in the NFPP, in contrast to management, technical, and service personnel. Moreover, these forest worker households exhibit a pattern characterized by a higher livelihood capital stock but a lower livelihood transformation capacity compared to non-forest worker households. Furthermore, within forest worker households, there is a significant group differentiation phenomenon, resulting in inter-group differentials in the sustainable livelihood levels based on geographical and seniority stratification criteria. The developers of the global forest protection program should prioritize addressing the sustainable livelihood issues of frontline participants in the program, especially the real problem of mismatches between livelihood capital stock and livelihood transformation capacity. This can be achieved through designing income incentives, stimulating consumption, and other means to enhance the relatively disadvantaged position of frontline participants while balancing the coordination and fairness of the protection program based on the aspects of both protection and development.

The Temporal and Spatial Evolution Characteristics of the Ecosystem Service Value and Conversion Rate in China’s Key State-Owned Forest Regions

To achieve a sustainable development path that harmonizes ecological and economic considerations, China has advocated the “two mountains” concept: “lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets”. This idea posits that those who protect the environment can economically benefit by selling pristine landscapes and utilizing rich ecological resources. This paper use “the equivalence factor method” to calculate ecological benefits, introduces a technical measure—the conversion rate of ecosystem service value—and analyzes its temporal and spatial evolution from 2003 to 2020 in the operational areas of 87 state-owned forestry enterprises in Northeast China. The findings show: (1) a significant improvement in ecosystem-service quality, with its value increasing from 404.7 to 850.2 billion CNY between 2003 and 2020. The restoration of the ecological environment in China’s KSFR provides a foundation for economic and social development. (2) A decrease in the economic gains derived by operators from developing protected ecosystems, with the most significant decline observed in economic benefits generated from the supply product, including timber harvesting. However, the industrial structure in KSFR shifted from being dominated by timber production to diversified development, with non-timber forest resources becoming an important part of regional economic growth. (3) Significant potential for realizing the value of ecosystem services, evidenced by an increasing trend in the conversion rates of cultural, regulatory, and supporting services. These findings underscore the effectiveness of China’s natural forest protection and restoration policies in optimizing forest ecology and realizing the “two mountains” concept through appropriate market transactions and ecological compensation mechanisms.

Determining Water Use Patterns for the Betula platyphylla in the Southern Greater Khingan Mountains and Its Adaptation to Drought

Due to global climate change, seasonal droughts have intensified and become more frequent in certain semi-arid regions, and plants often adjust their water uptake depths to adapt to shifting environmental conditions. The southern Greater Khingan Mountains have a large natural secondary forest area and act as an important ecological barrier. This study focused on examining the water use patterns of the primary plant species, Betula platyphylla, within the natural secondary forest of the southern Greater Khingan Mountains. The investigation utilized oxygen stable isotope techniques and covered a timeframe spanning from July 2019 to September 2020. The findings indicate that the adaptable water utilization strategies and rapid response to precipitation could facilitate plants fully utilizing water from all depths, thereby enabling them to better adapt to arid environments. When the rainfall was low (390.4 mm in the growing season of 2019), the developed shallow roots quickly absorbed shallow soil water (0–20 cm, with a utilization ratio of 40.4% for the entire root depth), but when the rainfall increased (501.5 mm in the growing season of 2020), Betula platyphylla gradually transitioned to extracting soil water from deeper soil layers (40–60 cm) and deepened its root system (with a utilization ratio of 39.4%), indicating its adaptability to semi-arid environments. Therefore, the flexible water use strategy of Betula platyphylla in the same habitat may give it a competitive advantage during low rainfall periods. The findings are important for the protection of natural forests and water management in the southern Greater Khingan Mountains.

Effects of Land Use Changes on Water Quality and Flooding in Upper Nan River, Thailand

Land use change is a crucial issue when considering global dynamics and their interactions with the hydrologic properties of the soil and water management in catchment areas. Between 2017 to 2018, research was conducted on the effects of land use changes on water quality and flooding in the upper Nan River Basin. In Nan Province, land use is distributed as follows: natural forest protection covers 61.77 percent, agricultural purposes account for 35.23 percent, residential areas constitute 1.95 percent, and water usage represents 0.7 percent. The results indicate that the expansion of urban and agricultural regions has impacted the water quality of the river basin. A significant positive correlation was observed between agricultural land use and total phosphate content, while a strong negative correlation was found between forest land and total phosphate content. Residential occupancy and water quality demonstrated a strong correlation with total coliform contents. There were significant differences in water quality between the wet and dry seasons, particularly temperature, turbidity, total solids, total dissolved solids, and conductivity. Moreover, increases in annual and seasonal stream flow amounts were noted in relation to water levels and residential and construction projects.

ИННОВАЦИОННЫЕ СТРАТЕГИИ ФИНАНСИРОВАНИЯ ЗЕЛЕНОЙ ЭКОНОМИКИ: ЛЕСНЫЕ ОБЛИГАЦИИ

The sustainability of forest ecosystems is key to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. However, the rate of deforestation and degradation of forest ecosystems is unprecedented, and the need for the investments needed to implement sustainable forest management mechanisms is substantial. The protection of natural forests is directly dependent on the availability of financial resources for sustainable forest management. At present, there is a lack of knowledge about innovative financing mechanisms for sustainable forest management that are suitable for implementation in developing markets where large-scale deforestation occurs. The article describes financial instruments that provide investment in forestry, analyzes the arguments in favor of investing in intensive forest management projects. Mechanisms for financing sustainable forest management programmes through the issuance of forest bonds were also considered. Forest bonds are a more appropriate financial instrument for financing sustainable forest management than traditional green bonds. A taxonomy is provided Projects implemented within the framework of intensive forest management programmes for which forest bonds can be issued. The purpose of this article is to develop academic research aimed at studying forest green bonds and, more generally, green market financing mechanisms for sustainable forest management.

Human activity and climate change accelerate the extinction risk to non-human primates in China.

Human activity and climate change affect biodiversity and cause species range shifts, contractions, and expansions. Globally, human activities and climate change have emerged as persistent threats to biodiversity, leading to approximately 68% of the ~522 primate species being threatened with extinction. Here, we used habitat suitability models and integrated data on human population density, gross domestic product (GDP), road construction, the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), the location of protected areas (PAs), and climate change to predict potential changes in the distributional range and richness of 26 China's primate species. Our results indicate that both PAs and NDVI have a positive impact on primate distributions. With increasing anthropogenic pressure, species' ranges were restricted to areas of high vegetation cover and in PAs surrounded by buffer zones of 2.7-4.5 km and a core area of PAs at least 0.1-0.5 km from the closest edge of the PA. Areas with a GDP below the Chinese national average of 100,000 yuan were found to be ecologically vulnerable, and this had a negative impact on primate distributions. Changes in temperature and precipitation were also significant contributors to a reduction in the range of primate species. Under the expected influence of climate change over the next 30-50 years, we found that highly suitable habitat for primates will continue to decrease and species will be restricted to smaller and more peripheral parts of their current range. Areas of high primate diversity are expected to lose from 3 to 7 species. We recommend that immediate action be taken, including expanding China's National Park Program, the Ecological Conservation Redline Program, and the Natural Forest Protection Program, along with a stronger national policy promoting alternative/sustainable livelihoods for people in the local communities adjacent to primate ranges, to offset the detrimental effects of anthropogenic activities and climate change on primate survivorship.

Spatiotemporal changes of forest vegetation after the implementation of a natural forest protection project and underlying driving factors: Case study of a typical natural secondary forest area in the Loess Plateau

The Natural Forest Protection Project (NFPP) in China is the first large-scale ecological restoration project aimed at protecting natural forest resources in the world. However, since its implementation in 1998, there was a lack of accurate quantitative evaluation of the ecological governance and restoration effects. This study investigated the core forest area of Ziwuling on the Loess Plateau (LP). Using the Google Earth Engine (GEE) and the Landsat remote sensing dataset, a multidimensional classification feature set comprising spectrum + vegetation index + texture + terrain was constructed by extracting multitemporal remote sensing information. With the help of land use and vegetation type data, a sample database was established, after which the random forest algorithm was used to realize the automatic classification of the five periods of the study area in 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2020. Combined with geostatistical methods such as Theil-Sen (Sen) trend analysis, Mann-Kendall (MK) trend test and geographic detectors, we realized the trend analysis of the driving factors of vegetation growth and the contribution analysis of the spatial differentiation of different vegetation types. The results showed that: (1) From 2000 to 2020, the vegetation area increased by 141.92 km2. In terms of structural composition, the vegetation was dominated by hardwood forest, followed by sagebrush, and low coverage of coniferous forest. (2) Over time, the expansion of vegetation showed a positive slowing trend, and the growth rate in 2000–2005 was significantly higher than in 2005–2020. (3) The main driving force affecting vegetation restoration is precipitation, and the temperature plays a regulating role. (4) The main driving factors affecting the spatial differentiation of vegetation were annual maximum temperature, annual average temperature, and aspect. These findings not only help us understand the intuitive contribution of the NFPP to the vegetation restoration and ecological management of the LP, but also provide an important reference for future studies using remote sensing technology in ecological restoration monitoring.

Effects of protected areas on soil nematode communities in forests of the North of Portugal

AbstractNature conservation policy is mainly concerned with aboveground terrestrial species and soil biodiversity has been largely ignored, resulting in a lack of information about the conservation status of most soil organisms and about the effects that nature conservation policies have on soil systems. Forests in Northern Portugal are characterized by a remarkable diversity of ecosystems and provide habitat for an enormous diversity of living organisms. This study aims to investigate whether and to what extent protected areas and forest typology (native vs. exotic) affect soil nematode biodiversity and functions in forest ecosystems. We studied soil nematode communities, which have been widely used for their bioindicator value, to: (i) assess differences in soil biodiversity and functions between protected and non-protected areas, and between native and exotic forest types; and (ii) infer how protected areas deal with pressures and drivers of soil biodiversity and functions. We showed that current work done by nature conservation in Northern Portugal is producing some significant effects on the soil system, showing a larger Structure and Omnivore footprints and greater abundance of fungivorous and omnivorous nematodes in protected areas. Furthermore, native forest areas are better suited to ensure soil biodiversity and ecological functioning and should have a greater importance in nature conservation measures. Soil organic carbon, apparent density, soil moisture, and deciduous forest cover mainly influenced soil functional biodiversity with higher nematode trophic groups being positively associated with soil organic carbon and moisture and negatively associated with apparent density. Finally, conservation efforts targeted at the protection of native forests need to better consider effects on soil biodiversity and function, to provide an integrated protection of both aboveground and belowground components.

Transformation of Plantation Forestry Productivity for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation.

The protection of natural forests as the major land-based biotic sink of carbon is regarded as a priority for climate action, and zero deforestation is an accepted global imperative. Sustainable intensification of plantation forestry will be essential to meet escalating, shifting, and diversifying demand for forest products if logging pressure on natural forests is to be decreased. Substitution strategies involves enhanced offtake from plantation forestry into long life-cycle products, opening up new options for medium- to long-term carbon drawdown, downstream decarbonization, and fossil fuel displacement in the construction and chemicals sectors. However, under current plantation productivity levels, it has been projected that by 2050, supply could provide as little as 35% of demand. This could be further exacerbated by climate change. To mitigate this shortfall, to avoid ensuing catastrophic logging pressure on natural forests, and to ensure that downstream decarbonization and fossil fuel substitution strategies are feasible, a dramatic step change in plantation productivity is required. This is particularly necessary in developing countries where increases in per capita demand and pressure on natural forests will be the most acute.

Spatiotemporal variations and its driving factors of soil conservation services in the Three Gorges Reservoir area in China

Soil conservation services play a vital role in regulating ecosystem services to prevent soil erosion and ensure regional ecological security. Therefore, effective evaluation and quantification of soil conservation services in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area (TGRA) are conducive to sustainable management under future global change. In this study, based on a basic database, including land use/cover data, soil data, topographic data, meteorological data, and NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) data as the basic databases, to evaluate the temporal and spatial changes of soil conservation services in the TGRA from 1990 to 2015 at a regional-scale level using the general soil loss equation. The results showed that forest ecosystems (including coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forests, coniferous forests, shrub forests, and broad-leaved forests) made a greater contribution (69%) to regulating soil conservation in TGRA, followed by farmland ecosystems (29%). In total TGRA, large spatial variation in soil conservation, such as the highest appeared in the northern hinterland, whereas the lowest was mostly shown in the northwest with relatively frequent human activities and developed industry and agriculture. In general, soil conservation in the TGRA ecosystem gradually increased from 1990 to 2015, with a total increase of 6%. In this period, with the effective implementation of ecological projects, such as the conversion of farmland to forest and natural forest protection, the distributed proportion of forest land area in total TGRA showed a significant increase. In the meantime, the increase of vegetation coverage also helps the restoration of ecosystem structure and function and the improvement of soil conservation services. Our findings will aid our knowledge regarding the ecosystem services of the TGRA and provide implications for future sustainable land management and ecological protection.

Spatial variations and mechanisms for the stability of water use efficiency in China.

A clearer understanding of the stability of water use efficiency (WUE) and its driving factors contributes to improving water use efficiency and strengthening water resource management. However, the stability of WUE is unclear. Based on the EEMD method, this study analyses the spatial variations and mechanisms for the stability of WUE in China, especially in the National Forest Protection Project (NFPP) areas. It is found that the stable WUE was dominated by non-significant trends and increasing trends in China, accounting for 33.59% and 34.19%, respectively. The non-significant trend of stable WUE was mainly located in the Three-North shelterbelt program area, and the increasing trend of stable WUE was in Huaihe and Taihu, Taihang Mountains, and Pearl River shelterbelt program areas. Precipitation and soil moisture promoted the stable WUE in these project areas. The unstable WUE was dominated by positive reversals or negative reversals of WUE trends. The positive reversals of unstable WUE were mainly located in the Yellow River shelterbelt program areas, which was promoted by temperature and radiation, while the negative reversals of unstable WUE were mainly distributed in the Yangtze River and Liaohe shelterbelt program areas, which were mainly induced by saturation water vapor pressure difference (VPD). Our results highlight that some ecological restoration programs need to be improved to cope with the negative climate impact on the stability of WUE.

Identification of Ecological Restoration Approaches and Effects Based on the OO-CCDC Algorithm in an Ecologically Fragile Region

A full understanding of the patterns, trends, and strategies for long-term ecosystem changes helps decision-makers evaluate the effectiveness of ecological restoration projects. This study identified the ecological restoration approaches on planted forest, natural forest, and natural grassland protection during 2000–2022 based on a developed object-oriented continuous change detection and classification (OO-CCDC) method. Taking the Loess hilly region in the southern Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China as a case study, we assessed the ecological effects after protecting forest or grassland automatically and continuously by highlighting the location and change time of positive or negative effects. The results showed that the accuracy of ecological restoration approaches extraction was 90.73%, and the accuracies of the ecological restoration effects were 86.1% in time and 84.4% in space. A detailed evaluation from 2000 to 2022 demonstrated that positive effects peaked in 2013 (1262.69 km2), while the highest negative effects were observed in 2017 (54.54 km2). In total, 94.39% of the planted forests, 99.56% of the natural forest protection, and 62.36% of the grassland protection were in a stable pattern, and 35.37% of the natural grassland displayed positive effects, indicating a proactive role for forest management and ecological restoration in an ecologically fragile region. The negative effects accounted for a small proportion, only 2.41% of the planted forests concentrated in Pengyang County and 2.62% of the natural grassland protection mainly distributed around the farmland in the central-eastern part of the study area. By highlighting regions with positive effects as acceptable references and regions with negative effects as essential conservation objects, this study provides valuable insights for evaluating the effectiveness of the integrated ecological restoration pattern and determining the configuration of ecological restoration measures.

Dynamic Change of Forest Ecological Benefit of the Natural Forest Protection Project in the Upper Reaches of Yangtze River

The Natural Forest Protection Project (NFPP) is an ecological restoration project aimed at safeguarding natural forests, and is one of China’s six main forestry initiatives. The upper reaches of the Yangtze River represent the main distribution area of natural forests in China, and are an important area for the implementation of the NFPP. A systematic assessment of forest ecosystem changes in the upper Yangtze River region before and after implementation of the NFPP is of great scientific significance for the improvement of the project implementation effect, regional ecological protection, and further protection and restoration of natural forest resources. This study uses the NFPP area in the Yangtze River’s upper reaches as the study area; the data are primarily derived from the 1998 and 2020 forest resources category II survey data, long-term monitoring data from forest ecological stations, and public social data published by authoritative Chinese organizations. Based on the above data, we used the full index system of forest ecosystem services, continuous observation, and inventory system with the distributed measurement method to analyze the dynamic changes in forest ecosystem services in the study area in terms of three aspects: physical quality, value quality, and dominant function. The results of the study show that: (1) over the studied time scale, compared to the 1998 baseline, the physical quantities (soil erosion control, water regulation, and PM10 retention) and value of each service function of the forest ecosystem in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River project area in 2020 showed a significant increasing trend; (2) at the spatial scale, changes in forest ecosystem service functions in the upper reaches of Yangtze River under the NFPP showed significant spatial heterogeneity from 1998 to 2020; (3) in 2020, the total value of forest ecosystem services in the study area was 3,261,161,000,000 yuan/a, of which the functional value of biodiversity conservation was 1,294,426,000,000 yuan/a and the functional value of water conservation was 841,069,000,000 yuan/a, indicating that the forest ecosystem of the study area plays an important role as a “green gene pool” and “green water reservoir”; (4) the forest ecosystem service functions of the NFPP in the upper reaches of Yangtze River are intricately tied to forest resource features such as forest area, forest volume, age-group structure of arbor forest, etc., which influence the physical quantity and value of each forest ecosystem service function to varying degrees. In addition to illustrating the amazing efficiency of the natural forest preservation initiative, this study provides a scientific foundation for future natural forest resource conservation and restoration. It can serve as a reference for the project’s subsequent development as well to provide scientific foundations and guidance for the development of the natural forest protection and restoration program and to promote the protection and restoration of more natural forest resources.

How Did the Southwest China Mountains Turn Green from 2000 to 2020? A Case Study in Chongqing

Vegetation, as a comprehensive ecological indicator of environmental change, plays an essential role in terrestrial ecosystems. Dramatic climate change and increasing anthropogenic disturbances have led to a profound change in vegetation cover. This study employed Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and other relevant data in Southwest China mountains, using Chongqing as a case study, to explore the variation in Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and its spatial differentiation mechanisms, quantify the relative contributions of climate change and human activities to these variations, and assess the effects of ecological policies, including afforestation, mountain closure forestry and natural forest conservation, and agricultural improvement. Results showed that the spatial distribution of annual NDVI, on average, varied 0.109 to 0.929, with the rate varying from −0.033 to 0.017 yr−1. NDVI was improved in 83.4% areas of Chongqing, and human activities contributed 69.1% of revegetation, whereas climate contributed 30.9%. On the other hand, human activities and climate change contributed 76.3% and 23.7% to vegetation degradation in 17.6% areas, respectively. Moreover, the explanatory power of anthropogenic factors on spatial differentiation of NDVI were stronger than that of climatic factors, and land use type was the dominant factor. The cumulative afforestation area, effective irrigation rate, fertilizer application, and total agricultural machinery power of the whole city was extremely significantly correlated with NDVI (p < 0.01), and the vegetation cover fluctuation in the region affected by natural forest protection and mountain closure forestry project was much more stable than that in non-protected areas, which to a certain extent reflected the effective implementation of local ecological protection, agricultural improvement, and other related policies.

Evaluating Household Welfare in Participation of China’s Natural Forest Protection Program: A Dual Perspective of Income Welfare and Material Welfare

This paper presents novel empirical evidence on the welfare impacts of forest protection programs, focusing on both income and material welfare at the household level. Specifically, we conduct a household survey of 1271 households in forestry communities that participate in the Natural Forest Protection Program (NFPP) in China. The survey data are collected from 56 state forest enterprises (SFEs) across three provinces in China. We employ the Alkire–Foster method to calculate and decompose the material deprivation index based on household income levels. Our analysis reveals that forestry communities exhibit a significant proportion of households in low-income welfare states, comprising nearly one-fourth (25.41%) of the sample. Furthermore, we observe that the percentage of households in a low-material welfare state is nearly one-fifth (21.70%), with 7.79% of households experiencing both low-income and low-material welfare. Importantly, we find that welfare disparities persist across population subgroups based on occupation and geography. In addition, we assess the impact of the NFPP on household welfare outcomes and identify an elite group of technicians residing in urban communities down the hill who experience positive welfare effects from the program. These findings provide critical insights beyond a single welfare dimension and contribute to the growing literature on evaluating forest protection policies. Furthermore, the results offer valuable lessons for designing and implementing forest protection programs in other developing countries.

Coupled vegetation-climate dominates the evapotranspiration variability of Forest Protection Project

Study regionThe Natural Forest Protection Project area in China (NFPP). Study focusApplying the Pattern-Process-Mechanism theory, we analyzed the spatiotemporal differentiation pattern and change trend of evapotranspiration (ET) in NFPP from 2000 to 2018. We employed methods such as geographical detectors and path analysis to identify the dominant factors and response mechanisms of ET changes in NFPP, specifically those resulting from vegetation recovery and climate change. New hydrological insights for the regionOur study reveals that ET in NFPP exhibits a fluctuating increasing trend, rising from 299.155 mm/yr in 2000–336.805 mm/yr in 2018, with an annual average of 316.486 mm/yr and a change rate of 2.092 mm/yr. The proportion of areas with decreasing ET trend in NFPP (50.944%) is approximately equal to that of areas with increasing ET trend (49.056%). Vegetation restoration (18.959%), water conditions (18.460%), and thermal conditions (56.526%) are the predominant factors that influence the changes and distribution of ET in NFPP. However, the trend of ET and its dominant factors vary by region. We emphasize that, given the circumstances of climate change and the continued increase in ET, future vegetation recovery strategies must consider water usage, as this has critical practical implications for the sustained maintenance of regional ecological engineering outcomes.