Protect Marine Biodiversity Research Articles

All at sea? Exploring key actors' understandings of the role of European Union policies for protecting marine nature

AbstractAmbitious European Union (EU) policies are aiming to halt and reverse marine biodiversity loss in the current decade. However, EU environmental and conservation policies have so far fallen short of their targets. This study explores how the key actors in policy interpretation and implementation frame their understandings of these policy objectives, and how these framings influence the protection of marine biodiversity. The results of a Q‐methodological study undertaken with key actors from national, regional sea, and EU governance levels reveal the existence of two predominant frames. Key actors are divided between Environmental Protection and Sustainable Use‐focused understandings, with the first framing further partitioning into four distinct subframes. All the identified frames are internally coherent and are firmly held, therefore begging the question of how EU conservation policy should proceed, given that the same policy texts and the marine biodiversity crisis are perceived in distinctly different ways, with different actions prioritized. It is important to understand and reflect on the different positioning of key actors because these differences directly influence the achievement of marine biodiversity goals.

Loss and gain of marine biodiversity in Mediterranean seawaters

The Mediterranean Sea is one of the most important biodiversity hotspots worldwide. The high biodiversity level of the basin is confirmed by the presence of about 17,000 marine species of which 20.2% are endemics. Amongst them, Posidonia oceanica (Linnaeus) Delile can form, in pristine coastal waters, large and extensive meadows, performing a pivotal role in endemic processes. However, the richness of marine biota is, actually, affected by some threats such as habitat loss, marine pollution, climate changes, eutrophication and the establishment of invasive alien species coming from the Indo-Pacific region through the pathway of Suez Canal. This trend could lead to a new kind of marine biodiversity influenced by the introduction of termophilic species altering the pattern of Mediterranean biota. Anyway, it is necessary a global approach, ensuring the better ecological conditions so to protect marine biodiversity in meditrranean seawaters.

Revision of China’s marine environmental protection law: history, background and improvement

The law on marine environmental protection is a branch of the law on environmental protection and is the basis for the conduct of marine environmental protection. Since its promulgation in 1982, China’s Marine Environmental Protection Law has undergone two revisions and three amendments, forming a legal system based on the Constitution, with the Environmental Protection Law as the overarching principle, the Marine Environmental Protection Law as the core, and various laws on the protection of marine elements as the gripping force. The revision of the Marine Environmental Protection Law in 2023 was based on the 2018 supervision and inspection of the enforcement inspection team of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, the implementation of the construction of a strong maritime country, and the adaptation to the reform of the ocean governance system. Compared with the previous Marine Environmental Protection Law, the improvements of the newly revised law are mainly reflected in the following: optimizing the institutional mechanism, reflecting the Land and Sea Coordination, strengthening supervision and management, strengthening marine litter pollution prevention and control, enhancing the protection of marine biodiversity, strengthening the regulation of estuaries, and strict liability.

Looking for reliable species distribution models for low‐density cetacean species: Compared effectiveness of SDMs for G. griseus, G. melas, Z. cavirostris in the Mediterranean Sea based on long‐term fixed‐transect data

Abstract The EU regulative framework for the protection of marine biodiversity and habitats requires the assessment of species' conservation status and the identification of core habitats to design adequate conservation and management plans. However, the identification of distribution range and habitat‐use of pelagic large‐range, migratory species, such as cetaceans, is challenging. Species distribution models (SDMs) are increasingly used in conservation planning to identify species priority areas. However, the quality of SDMs varies widely depending on the representativeness of data and the appropriateness of the modelling techniques. Since 2007, the Fixed Line Transect Mediterranean Monitoring Network (FLT Med Net) has been continuously monitoring cetaceans throughout the year in the Mediterranean basin using passenger ferries as observation platforms that perform repetitive surveys along fixed trans‐border transects. With the aim of defining a standard analytical approach, the data collected by the FLT Med Net on rarer Mediterranean cetacean species (i.e., Grampus griseus, Globicephala melas, Ziphius cavirostris) are used here to assess the performance of commonly used SDMs, including GLM, GAM, GAM‐Negative Binomial, GAM‐tweedy, MaxEnt and Random Forest. Models were built and evaluated using a total of 296 FLT Med Net sighting data and cross‐validated using 145 independent data points. Under testing conditions, almost all methods exhibited good performance, with Random Forest being the best model in several cases. However, when evaluated with the independent dataset, many models yielded inconsistent results or notably low performance. Only MaxEnt demonstrated consistent efficiency and reliability in both cases, showing results less affected by unequal sampling or small sample size. Results confirm the importance of robust standard SDM approaches based on representative data such as the FLT Med Net data to identify reliable priority areas for the species and to assess the long‐term coherence and effectiveness of spatial protection measures.

The Invasion of Caulerpa cylindracea Sonder 1845 in the Calabria Coastal Seas

Caulerpa cylindracea, Indo-Pacific and thermophilic macroalgal species, have spread in Italian coastal waters, especially in the western Mediterranean Sea. Also, along the Calabria coastline, this Invasive Alien Species (IAS) was able to colonize most of the western and eastern seasides of the region. This research was conducted between 1999 and 2021 through a detailed cost-effective citizen science program. The novelty of this research was to determine the overall distribution of Caulerpa cylindracea along Calabria seawaters from the Tyrrhenian to the Ionian coasts. The results of the monitoring survey highlighted the presence of Caulerpa cylindracea in 45 collecting stations throughout the Calabrian coastline. This regional assessment showed the extensive adaptability of the species to different environmental conditions: from exposed to sheltered sites, in shaded and sunny coastal areas and also throughout pristine and polluted waters. The rapid and increasing spread of the species could affect the structure of Mediterranean biota or, otherwise, could lead in time to new ecological niches. As highlighted in the most recent literature, it is necessary to update monitoring and mapping plans for the protection of marine biodiversity through close coordination between scientists, citizens and policy makers, all engaged to ensure effective management of invasive processes.

Whales and dolphins of the Adriatic Sea

The Adriatic Sea is one of the Mediterranean areas most exposed to cumulative human stressors. This semienclosed and largely shallow basin has been subjected to intensive exploitation and destructive fishing practices for decades, resulting in biodiversity decline and poor ecosystem health. Diversity of cetaceans is lower than in other parts of the Mediterranean, and the extant dolphins and whales have been facing threats that include the combined effects of habitat loss and degradation, prey depletion, incidental mortality and injury caused by fisheries, anthropogenic noise, chemical contamination and climate change. Here, we report information for the nine cetacean species known to occur in the basin (classified as either regular, visitor or vagrant), plus three species characterized by a single record. For these species, we review evidence from field research and other studies – with a bias towards the common bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus (by far the most intensively-studied cetacean in this area). We also describe and characterize the main threats to cetaceans in the Adriatic, relying on recent literature as well as historical information that helps frame the present status of cetaceans in the context of past human impacts (particularly the extensive killing campaigns conducted until the 1960s). Finally, we provide management recommendations to inform and guide the action that must be taken in compliance with extant legislation, marine conservation directives and international commitments to protect marine biodiversity.

Protection and Progress of the Marine Environment

The marine environment is an important part of the earth's ecosystem and is of great significance to maintaining the earth's ecological balance and the sustainable development of human beings. However, due to undue interference and pollution from human activities, the marine environment is facing serious threats. The aim is to explore the importance of protecting the marine environment and propose some feasible measures to reduce marine pollution and protect marine biodiversity. In a word, the research on marine environmental protection is of great significance for maintaining ecological balance, protecting endangered species, regulating climate, rationally utilizing resources and reducing environmental pollution. Through scientific research and reasonable management, we can protect and make good use of marine resources and create good conditions for future sustainable development. In recent years, various countries and the United Nations government have formulated many laws and policies on ocean protection, but these laws are still flawed and need to be improved and supplemented.

Can green hydrogen production be used to mitigate ocean deoxygenation? A scenario from the Gulf of St. Lawrence

Ocean deoxygenation and expansion and intensification of hypoxia in the ocean are a major, growing threat to marine ecosystems. Measures currently used to protect marine biodiversity (e.g., marine protected areas) are ineffective in countering this threat. Here, we highlight the example of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in eastern Canada, where oxygen loss is not only due to eutrophication (which can be mitigated by nutrient controls) but also is a consequence of ocean circulation change and warming. Climate-related loss of oxygen will be an increasingly widespread source of risk to marine biodiversity over this century. Again using the Gulf of St. Lawrence as an example, we show that production of oxygen by the green hydrogen industry can be comparable to the loss rate of dissolved oxygen on large spatial scales, offering new possibilities for mitigation. However, this mitigation approach has rarely been considered for marine environments to date. Given confluence of increasing risk to marine ecosystems from oxygen loss and rapid emergence, worldwide, of industrial sources of pure oxygen, which are likely to be located in coastal regions, we believe this option will be proposed increasingly in coming years, including by the private sector. We argue that it is urgent for ocean scientists, engineers, and policymakers to recognize and address this emerging potential. A coordinated research effort should be established immediately in order to harness the potential of the green hydrogen industry to mitigate major impacts of climate change on marine biodiversity, and avoid any unintended negative consequences.

Autonomous projects in the face of the global fishing market: women fish processors in Senegal in a context of climate emergency

ABSTRACT This article aims to analyse the difficult relationship between the needs of the Senegalese state to obtain economic compensation for the over-exploitation of natural resources, the right to food sovereignty of the local population, and the survival of the environment. It focuses on the fisheries agreements signed by Senegal with the European Union (EU) and how these have an impact on the conditions of people who make a living from the sector, analysing the situation and the self-organising of women involved in fish processing, an activity that sustains their autonomy and their ongoing reproduction as a collective. Declared goals of sustainable fishing in the latest protocol implementing the EU–Senegal Fisheries Agreement (2019–2024) are at odds with the actual over-exploitation of the marine environment. The commitment expressed in Article 2 of the agreement to ‘promote sustainable fishing and protect marine biodiversity’ contrasts with the lived experiences of women fish processors, expressed in denunciations of campaigns such as Greenpeace Afrique’s AnaSamaJën (where is my fish?). Based on the assumption that overfishing is a form of extractivism that undermines food sovereignty and the sustainability of local societies, this article first analyses the agreements signed between Senegal and the EU, including their clear anthropocentric ontology (Escobar 2017) and discusses how the state takes up the financial, environmental and food challenges posed by climate change. The second part, based on fieldwork and interviews with women fish processors and other actors in the sector, shows how these international agreements affect their economic and social conditions as well as their resistance, where social struggles and environmental thinking are linked.

Ocean-based Climate Action and Human Rights Implications under the International Climate Change Regime

Abstract After drawing attention to the crucial role of marine biodiversity, including that of deep-sea ecosystems, in current scientific understanding of the ocean-climate nexus, this article highlights the limited extent to which the international climate change regime has so far addressed the ocean. The focus then shifts to how the international climate change regime could contribute to the protection of marine biodiversity as part of mitigation, adaptation and finance, taking into account human rights impacts and standards, drawing a comparison with REDD+. The article concludes with an original proposal, inspired by the Climate and Clean Air Coalition, to develop urgent, synergistic approaches to ocean- and human rights-based climate action through a multi-actor coalition, including different international treaties and United Nations bodies, to ‘protect and restore the ocean’s contributions to climate regulation, human well-being and planetary health’.

Nebrius ferrugineus (Chondrichthyes: Orectolobiformes: Ginglymostomatidae) record and the role of citizen science for conservation in Morotai North Maluku Indonesia

Nebrius ferrugineus, or tawny nurse shark, is a species of carpet shark distributed across the tropical Indo-Pacific region. This species has little species-specific information on biology and fisheries. The tawny nurse shark is listed as “Vulnerable” on IUCN Redlist and is rarely seen, recorded, and studied in Indonesia. We recorded this species during SCUBA diving in Morotai waters in April 2022. Recorded live encounters by SCUBA diving activities in Indonesia are even more scarce. In Morotai, North Maluku, this species anecdotally exists by reports from SCUBA divers, however, have not been documented very well. Scientific record of this species is highly important for conservation and habitat management. The government of Indonesia also recognised the significance of biodiversity and potential marine tourism in Morotai by declaring 65,520.75 hectares of Marine Protected Area (MPA) named Taman Wisata Perairan (TWP) Pulau Rao - Tanjung Dehegila. This MPA focuses on protecting marine biodiversity, historical object preservation (World War II underwater relics) and sustainable small-scale fisheries. However, species-specific protection for tawny nurse sharks does not exist in Indonesia. In Morotai, where this species is recorded, marine protected areas are only effective in conserving shark if it is sufficiently large, well-enforced, and monitored.

Scuba Diving As Sustainability Economic Marine Ecotourism

Diving ecotourism is a form of adventure tourism that has high economic value in marine ecosystems, especially coral reef ecosystems, contributing at least 4 billion USD annually in the Southeast Asian region. In particular, diving tourism worth more than 150 million USD has contributed significant income and employment to many islands and coastal communities in Southeast Asian countries. Another research have a plan that blue economy become base of scuba diving eco-tourism as economic concern and use community-based ecotourism (CBET) within the developing market dynamics of the blue economy. Many coastal communities around the world are strongly dependent on the need to find a balance between protecting marine biodiversity and maintaining a sustainable and direct access to ecosystem services. Healthy coastal ecosystems support livelihoods and provide protection from natural hazards, coastal erosion and rising sea levels, particularly in small island developing states. The blue economy discourse has made considerable inroads towards bridging the gap between livelihoods and ocean health. Although different actors involved in marine and ocean governance are using the blue economy term in competing and often conflicting ways, the wider consensus is that economies and human wellbeing rely on healthy eco-systems. Scuba diving tourists can help fund marine conservation initiatives and research. Some dive operators, for example, contribute a percentage of their income to marine conservation groups or engage in citizen science pro-grams that collect data on marine ecosystems. Scuba diving tourism can help safeguard marine habitats and encourage sustainable practices by funding research and conservation activities. Overall, scuba diving tourism provides a one-of-a-kind opportunity to enjoy the beauty and diversity of marine ecosystems while also offering considerable economic benefits and aiding marine conservation.

Pathways to protect marine biodiversity: Could Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) be benefited by landscape ecology?

The marine environment faces multiple threats, many of which are still undiscovered. Anthropogenic noise is considered a representative indicator of the human footprint. The aim of this short communication is to protect marine biodiversity by exploiting basic principles of Landscape and Soundscape Ecology and borrowing methods and tools to identify and map the human induced noise of the marine environment and thus create, based on this information layer, a connectivity pathway among all Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). Today it is of vital importance to take urgent action towards protecting the marine environment. Could we be inspired by effective and practical solutions of biodiversity conservation, already successfully implemented in the terrestrial environment, taking into account the special and diverse characteristics of the marine environment to protect marine biodiversity?

Concern about the human health implications of marine biodiversity loss is higher among less educated and poorer citizens: Results from a 14-country study in Europe

IntroductionMarine biodiversity loss has direct and indirect effects on human health and wellbeing. Recent European data suggest that the public is aware of this, identifying marine biodiversity protection as its top research priority in terms of oceans and human health, rated higher than issues such as plastic, chemical, and microbial pollution.MethodsThe current study aimed to better understand key sociodemographic and personality predictors of concern about marine biodiversity loss and the desire for more research into marine biodiversity protection, in an attempt to support communication efforts targeting specific sectors in society. Data were drawn from nationally representative samples of 14 European countries (n = 14,167).ResultsResults show greater concern about marine biodiversity loss and support for more research into marine biodiversity protection by older adults, females, and individuals: (i) without (vs. with) a university degree; (ii) with lower (vs. middle) incomes; (iii) who identified as politically left-wing; (iv) who visited the coast more often; and (v) those with more open, agreeable and conscientious personalities.DiscussionThese results suggest that, although concern and research support are generally high among European citizens, policy makers and communicators need to take into consideration individual-level variation.

Marine protected areas and electronic navigational charts: legal foundation, mapping methods, IHO S-122 portrayal, and advanced navigation services

A strategic instrument for the sustainable conservation of the fragile marine ecosystem is the designation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), within which various regulations exist for the protection of highly vulnerable species and habitats. These regulations can be depicted on Electronic Navigational Charts (ENCs) based on the new International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) S-100 series of standards, which support Marine Information Overlays (MIOs) that enrich the portrayed information by including both static and dynamic information, such as vessels traffic, tides, currents, and weather conditions, as well as essential information for the regulation of MPAs. Although, the new IHO S-122 Product Specification introduced specifically for the MPAs has been developed to encapsulate geospatial information for these regulations, the present edition does not specify portrayal. This paper reviews the legal foundation for the protection of marine mammals as well as the mapping methods used in selected study cases and builds upon these to present new, intuitive portrayal symbols for depicting the type of MPAs in combination with the regulations to be enforced on ENCs. Moreover, to support the global efforts for the protection of marine biodiversity, contemporary navigation systems aboard vessels can be used to enforce environmental regulations, and operations centers ashore can also monitor vessels’ passage and activities in MPAs. In that respect, this paper also discusses the concepts of Ecosystem Protection Zones and Environmental Risk Contours that can facilitate environmental risk-based voyage planning and preventive alarm services through Electronic Chart Display and Information Systems (ECDIS).

A Critical Gap in Seagrass Protection: Impact of Anthropogenic Off-Shore Nutrient Discharges on Deep Posidonia oceanica Meadows.

In the Mediterranean, anthropogenic pressures (specifically those involving nutrient loads) have been progressively moved to deeper off-shore areas to meet current policies dealing with the protection of marine biodiversity (e.g., European Directives). However, conservation efforts devoted to protecting Posidonia oceanica and other vulnerable marine habitats against anthropogenic pressures have dedicated very little attention to the deepest areas of these habitats. We studied the remote influence of off-shore nutrient discharge on the physiology and structure of deep P. oceanica meadows located nearest to an urban sewage outfall (WW; 1 km) and an aquaculture facility (FF; 2.5 km). Light reduction and elevated external nutrient availability (as indicated by high δ15N, total N and P content and N uptake rates of seagrass tissues) were consistent with physiological responses to light and nutrient stress. This was particularly evident in the sites located up to 2.5 km from the WW source, where carbon budget imbalances and structural alterations were more evident. These results provide evidence that anthropogenic nutrient inputs can surpass critical thresholds for the species, even in off-shore waters at distances within the km scale. Therefore, the critical distances between this priority habitat and nutrient discharge points have been underestimated and should be corrected to achieve a good conservation status.

Sustainable Management of Marine Biodiversity in Areas beyond National Jurisdiction by Establishing Protected Areas on the High Seas: A Chinese Perspective

Due to the several undiscovered and valuable gene and mineral resources, marine biodiversity is considered a strategic asset for socio-economic development. However, marine biodiversity is facing grave threats, particularly in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ), where sustainable management and effective implementation of governance is yet lacking. Here existing international legal regimes with the protection of marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction are briefly summarized, focusing on potential factors influencing China’s policymaking on the construction of marine protected areas on the high seas. It is concluded that China should actively participate in international negotiations and seriously assess the impacts of establishing these protected areas before making its own decision in order to achieve the sustainable conservation and management of marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction. In addition, the policy’s future research directions will be the practical challenges for China to establish and manage the marine protected areas on the high seas, especially in the selection of locations and the model of management.

Consumer Attitudes towards Fish and Seafood in Portugal: Opportunities for Footprint Reduction

Fish and seafood are central to the Portuguese diet, comprising a significant portion of Portugal’s Ecological Footprint. Diversifying dietary preferences is important because it has the potential to reduce pressure on marine ecosystems. We explored this opportunity by coupling (1) an Ecological Footprint assessment of Portugal to quantify the environmental impacts of Portugal’s food consumption choices (particularly fish and seafood), with (2) a consumer survey to assess attitudes towards fish and seafood of Portuguese residents and their willingness to modify their preferences, thus shedding light on the potential for sustainable dietary choices in Portugal and the best strategies by which to achieve them. Ecological Footprint results confirm that Portugal is unique in the Mediterranean region in that its food Footprint is driven by fish and seafood consumption, while, for most other countries, the main driver is meat. Results from the consumer survey show that Portuguese fish and seafood preferences are characterized by a high frequency of consumption and a preference for high trophic level species. Age was the primary demographic factor influencing consumption habits in Portugal. Moreover, Portuguese consumers lack knowledge on sustainable fishing practices. Actions and strategies to increase sustainable dietary choices in Portugal will need to consider these factors. We recommend targeted outreach messaging for different age groups, more and better information on sustainable options, together with efforts to protect marine biodiversity. Future research needs to better understand the whole value chain and all relevant stakeholders of the fish and seafood sector for more effective incentives for Footprint reduction.

Incorporating protected areas into global fish biomass projections under climate change

The world has set ambitious goals to protect marine biodiversity and improve ocean health in the face of anthropogenic threats. Yet, the efficiency of spatial tools such as marine reserves to protect biodiversity is threatened as climate change shifts species distributions globally. Here, we investigate the ability of global marine reserves to protect fish biomass under future climate change scenarios. Moreover, we explore regional patterns and compare worlds with and without marine reserves. We rely on computer modeling to simulate an utopian world where all marine reserves thrive and ocean governance is effective. Results suggest that climate change will affect fish biomass in most marine reserves and their surrounding waters throughout the 21st century. The biomass change varies among regions, with tropical reserves losing biomass, temperate ones gaining, and polar reserves having mixed effects. Overall, a world with marine reserves will still be better off in terms of fish biomass than a world without marine reserves. Our study highlights the need to promote climate resilient conservation methods if we are to maintain and recover biodiversity in the ocean under a changing world.

The Necessity of a Global Legal Framework for Protection of Marine Biodiversity in Areas beyond National Jurisdiction

This paper will consider whether the ‘International Legally Binding Instrument under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction’ (BBNJ agreement) could provide the basis for an integrated framework for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity in the area beyond national jurisdiction, and if in doing so, it could in turn give any impetus to the obligation of States to protect the marine environment stipulated in Article 192 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). To answer this question, Section 2 will briefly explain the gaps in two relevant international treaties for conservation and sustainable use of the marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ). Section 3 will clarify the binding character of the BBNJ agreement in comparison to the existing relevant international agreements, such as the 1995 Fish Stocks Agreement and the Part xi Agreement. Section 4 will analyse provisions in area-based management tools and the environment impact assessment stipulated in the BBNJ draft text, to assess their role as an important basis for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity. Based on these analyses of the BBNJ draft text, Section 5 will then turn to consider the necessary elements that stand to play potentially significant roles as legally-binding tools for the conservation and sustainable use of the marine biological diversity of ABNJ. Three such elements are to be identified, the first being the binding effect of the due diligence obligation imposed by the BBNJ agreement, which could serve as a global tool for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity. The second element is the means to ensure effective implementation of the BBNJ agreement, wherein the institutional framework would play a decisive role. The third element is the characteristics of the due diligence obligation referred to in the first point. As a further consideration, Section 6 will also specifically examine the due diligence obligation for the protection of marine biological diversity of ABNJ.