Marine Protected Areas Proposals Research Articles

Evaluation of biodiversity benefits of proposed marine protected areas from the Sea Change—Tai Timu Tai Pari Hauraki Gulf MarineSpatial Plan

AbstractThe Sea Change—Tai Timu Tai Pari Hauraki Gulf Marine Spatial Plan is New Zealand's first marine spatial plan and represents a collaborative response from mana whenua, local stakeholders, and regional and national governmental agencies to the threats and stressors responsible for the declining natural state of the Hauraki Gulf ecosystems. From a biodiversity perspective, the main objectives of the plan are the recovery of depleted fishing stocks and the restoration of degraded marine habitats through a network of marine protected areas (MPAs), including highly protected areas that allow for customary practices. While some information on biodiversity, resource activities, and management layers was used to develop the MPA network proposals, they were developed without benefit of systematic conservation planning tools. Here, systematic conservation planning software was used to assess the conservation benefits of different no‐take MPA network proposals, using available biodiversity and habitat datasets. The analysis indicates that while the proposed MPAs provide protection for some biodiversity features that were identified by the stakeholders, the inclusion of newly available biodiversity datasets under a systematic conservation planning approach could improve conservation outcomes.

Dispersal models alert on the risk of non‐native species introduction by Ballast water in protected areas from the Western Antarctic Peninsula

AbstractAimThe Western Antarctic Peninsula is challenged by climate change and increasing maritime traffic that together facilitate the introduction of marine non‐native species from warmer regions neighbouring the Southern Ocean. Ballast water exchange has been frequently reported as an introduction vector. This study uses a Lagrangian approach to model the passive drift of virtual propagules departing from Ballast water hypothetic exchange zones, at contrasting distances from the coasts.LocationWestern Antarctic Peninsula.MethodsVirtual propagules were released over the 2008–2016 period and at three distances from the nearest coasts: 200 (convention for the management of Ballast Water, 2004), 50 or 11 nautical miles (NM).ResultsResults show that exchanging Ballast water at 200 NM considerably reduces the arrival of propagules in proposed marine protected areas of the western side of the Antarctic Peninsula. On the eastern side, propagules can reach north‐eastern marine protected areas within a few days due to strong currents for all tested scenarios. Seasonal and yearly variations indicate that exceptional climate events could influence the trajectory of particles in the region. Ballast water should be exchanged at least 200 NM offshore on the western side of the Antarctic Peninsula and avoided on the eastern side to limit particle arrival in proposed marine protected areas. Focusing on Deception Island, our results suggested that the Patagonian crab (Halicarcinus planatus) observed in 2010 could have been introduced in case of Ballast water exchange at 50 NM or less from the coast.Main conclusionsThis study highlights the importance of respecting Ballast water exchange convention to limit the risk of non‐native species introduction. Ballast water exchange should be operated at least at 200 NM from the coasts, which further limits particle arrival in shallow water areas. This is especially important in the context of a more visited and warmer Southern Ocean.

Deep-sea biodiversity at the extremes of the Salas y Gómez and Nazca ridges with implications for conservation.

The Salas y Gómez and Nazca ridges are underwater mountain chains that stretch across 2,900 km in the southeastern Pacific and are recognized for their high biodiversity value and unique ecological characteristics. Explorations of deep-water ecosystems have been limited in this region, and elsewhere globally. To characterize community composition of mesophotic and deep-sea demersal fauna at seamounts in the region, we conducted expeditions to Rapa Nui (RN) and Salas y Gómez (SyG) islands in 2011 and Desventuradas Islands in 2013. Remote autonomous baited-cameras were used to conduct stationary video surveys between 150–1,850 m at RN/SyG (N = 20) and 75–2,363 m at Desventuradas (N = 27). Individual organisms were identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level and relative abundance was quantified with the maximum number of individuals per frame. Deployments were attributed with associated environmental variables (temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, nitrate, silicate, phosphate, chlorophyll-a, seamount age, and bathymetric position index [BPI]). We identified 55 unique invertebrate taxa and 66 unique fish taxa. Faunal community structure was highly dissimilar between and within subregions both for invertebrate (p < 0.001) and fish taxa (p = 0.022). For fishes, dogfish sharks (Squalidae) accounted for the greatest dissimilarity between subregions (18.27%), with mean abundances of 2.26 ± 2.49 at Desventuradas, an order of magnitude greater than at RN/SyG (0.21 ± 0.54). Depth, seamount age, broad-scale BPI, and nitrate explained most of the variation in both invertebrate (R2 = 0.475) and fish (R2 = 0.419) assemblages. Slightly more than half the deployments at Desventuradas (N = 14) recorded vulnerable marine ecosystem taxa such as corals and sponges. Our study supports mounting evidence that the Salas y Gómez and Nazca ridges are areas of high biodiversity and high conservation value. While Chile and Peru have recently established or proposed marine protected areas in this region, the majority of these ridges lie outside of national jurisdictions and are under threat from overfishing, plastic pollution, climate change, and potential deep-sea mining. Given its intrinsic value, this region should be comprehensively protected using the best available conservation measures to ensure that the Salas y Gómez and Nazca ridges remain a globally unique biodiversity hotspot.

Strengthening the synergies among global biodiversity targets to reconcile conservation and socio‐economic demands

Abstract Most of the world's nations adopted the 20 Aichi global biodiversity targets to be met by 2020, including the protection of at least 10% of their coastal and marine areas (Target 11) and the avoidance of extinction of threatened species (Target 12). However, reconciling these biodiversity targets with socio‐economic demands remains a great dilemma for implementing conservation policies. In this paper, Aichi Targets 11 and 12 were simultaneously addressed using Brazil's exclusive economic zone as an example. Priority areas for expanding the current system of marine protected areas within the country's eight marine ecoregions were identified with data on threatened vertebrates under different scenarios. Additionally, the potential effects of major socio‐economic activities (small‑ and large‐scale fishing, seabed mining, and oil and gas exploration) on the representation of conservation features in proposed marine protected areas were explored. Areas selected for expanding marine protected areas solely based on biodiversity data were different (spatial overlap from 62% to 93%) from areas prioritized when socio‐economic features were incorporated into the analysis. The addition of socio‐economic data in the prioritization process substantially decreased opportunity costs and potential conservation conflicts, at the cost of reducing significantly (up to 31%) the coverage of conservation features. Large‑ and small‐scale fisheries act in most of the exclusive economic zone and are the major constraints for protecting high‐priority areas. Nevertheless, there is some spatial mismatch between areas of special relevance for conservation and socio‐economic activities, suggesting an opportunity for reconciling the achievement of biodiversity targets and development goals within the intricate Brazilian seascape by 2020 and beyond.

“Logrolling” in Antarctic governance: Limits and opportunities

AbstractThe Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) is considered a successful example of international governance as it has managed tensions over sovereignty claims, avoided militarisation and dealt with marine resources and environmental protection. Recently, China’s influence and assertiveness in many international institutions have significantly grown. What effect this shift in the international politics will have upon Antarctic governance remains to be seen. However, to further thinking on this issue we explore two current case studies that reveal pressure points within the ATS. First, in the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, Australia has proposed marine protected areas off East Antarctica, to which China and several other states have objected. Second, in the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings, China has proposed special management arrangements for the area around the “Kunlun” station, to which Australia and several other states have objected. Negotiation theory suggests “logrolling” (i.e. trade of mutual decision-making support across issue areas) can be an effective strategy to avoid diplomatic deadlocks. We therefore consider the merits of a logrolling strategy for the above issues. We find that while a logrolling strategy in the ATS might facilitate short-term diplomatic success, it would carry significant risks, including the weakening of existing norms.

Stakeholder analysis for marine conservation planning using public participation GIS

Stakeholders are presumed to represent different interests for marine and coastal areas with the potential to influence marine protected area planning and management. We implemented a public participation GIS (PPGIS) system in the remote Kimberley region of Australia to identify the spatial values and preferences for marine and coastal areas. We assessed similarities and differences in PPGIS participants (N = 578) using three operational definitions for “stakeholder” based on: (1) self-identified group, (2) self-identified future interests in the region, and (3) participant value orientation that reflects a preferred trade-off between environmental and economic outcomes. We found moderate levels of association between alternative stakeholder classifications that were logically related to general and place-specific participatory mapping behavior in the study region. We then analyzed how stakeholder classifications influence specific management preferences for proposed marine protected areas (MPAs) in the study region. Conservation-related values and preferences dominated the mapped results in all proposed marine reserves, the likely result of volunteer sampling bias by conservation stakeholder interests participating in the study. However, we suggest these results may also reflect the highly politicized process of marine conservation planning in the Kimberley where conservation efforts have recently emerged and galvanized to oppose a major offshore gas development and associated land-based infrastructure. Consistent with other participatory mapping studies, our results indicate that the chosen operational definition for stakeholder group such as group identity versus interests can influence participatory mapping outcomes, with implications for MPA designation and management. Future research is needed to better understand the strengths and limitations of participatory mapping that is framed in stakeholder perspectives, especially when sampling relies heavily on volunteer recruitment and participation methods that appear predisposed to participatory bias. In parallel, practical efforts to ensure that social research efforts such as this are included in MPA planning must remain of the highest priority for scientists and managers alike.

Valuing marine and coastal ecosystem service benefits: Case study of St Vincent and the Grenadines’ proposed marine protected areas

This paper reports the results of a choice experiment (CE) that values the ecosystem service benefits from extending the current network of marine protected areas (MPAs) in St Vincent and the Grenadines (SVG), Caribbean. We considered two future options: an ‘improved’ scenario in which marine protection is increased, and a ‘decline’ scenario in which current protection mechanisms are removed. The CE was administered at two sites (the degraded St Vincent South Coast and the pristine Tobago Cays) and to tourists and local residents. Results suggest that both groups value health protection, fishing, coastal protection, ecosystem resilience, and diving/snorkelling. Values are higher for the ‘decline’ scenario compared to the ‘improved’ scenario. Also, tourists had significantly higher WTP values than locals. Our analysis also enabled an evaluation of the benefits derived from alternative policy interventions that may be used to protect and enhance SVG’s marine parks. Stopping pollution from agriculture run-off and sewage was found to generate the highest ecosystem service benefits, with restricting over-fishing and bad fishing practices also being important. We demonstrate how economic valuation of marine ecosystem service might be used to design and target marine conservation policies that maximise welfare benefits.

On the wave energy potential along the eastern Baltic Sea coast

We analyse the wave energy resource theoretically and practically available in a semi-sheltered shelf sea of moderate depth and with relatively severe but highly intermittent wave climate on the example of the Baltic Sea. The wave properties along the entire eastern Baltic Sea coast, from the Sambian (Samland) Peninsula to the eastern Gulf of Finland, are reconstructed numerically for 1970–2007 with a spatial resolution of 3 nautical miles (5.5 km) and temporal resolution of 1 h using the third generation wave model WAM. Owing to the shallowness of the sea (54 m on average) the finite-depth dispersion relation is used in the estimates of the wave energy resources in the nearshore, at depths of 7–48 m where the WAM model provides adequate results. The average wave energy flux (wave power) over the 38 years in question is about 1.5 kW/m (at selected locations up to 2.55 kW/m) in the nearshore regions of the eastern Baltic Proper but much smaller, about 0.7 kW/m, in the interior of the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Riga. The total theoretical wave energy resource in the entire study area is about 1.5 GW. The existing and proposed marine protected areas limit the available wave energy resource down to ∼840 MW. The production of grid energy is complicated because of extremely high intermittency and strong seasonal variation of the wave properties and frequent presence of sea ice. Although the wave energy resources are of obvious interest at some locations, their use for supplying power into the grid is questionable and probably not feasible in the conceivable future.

A framework to assess the vulnerability of California commercial sea urchin fishermen to the impact of MPAs under climate change

This paper describes the development of a Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) that estimates the relative ability of California commercial sea urchin fishermen to cope with the change associated with proposed marine protected areas. A key goal in establishing marine protected areas is to maximize conservation benefits while minimizing the potential negative impacts to local fishing communities. However, current impact analyses largely assume a linear relationship between percent of fishing area or revenue lost with the magnitude of impact to fishermen. The LVI described in this paper aims to provide an additional dimension to impact analyses in which the adaptive capacity of individual fishermen is examined to estimate the differential abilities of fishermen to cope with the loss of fishing areas or revenue. This paper advances vulnerability assessments as it develops a novel framework for identifying and measuring drivers of vulnerability for understudied fishing populations whose livelihoods depend upon marine resources. This vulnerability assessment is intended to inform the design of marine protected areas by enabling researchers to incorporate the adaptive capacity of fishermen into socioeconomic impact analyses. The LVI was developed for the California commercial sea urchin fishery in the context of proposed marine protected area networks develop through the California Marine Life Protected Act planning process. As climate change advances there is an increasing need to identify vulnerable and resilient populations and ways to bolster adaptive capacity given the environmental and economic changes ahead.

Use of local knowledge in marine protected area management

For decades, fishermen in most parts of the world have been experiencing a reduction in fish abundances. Overexploitation and increasing demands are the glaring visible causes, but weakness or absence of fishery management is the core problem. Faced with repeated failure of fishery management and the resulting overexploitation in fish stocks, new management plans are needed in order to preserve both fishermen's jobs and food security. A growing number of published sources have proposed marine protected areas (MPA) as a fishery management tool. The decision of MPA design requires close collaboration with local fishermen communities for it to be accepted and respected. This paper focus on the case of a Uruguayan lagoon, the Rocha lagoon, which is exploited by two fishermen communities. The lagoon is located inside a national park. Park authorities are in the process of designing a management plan that defines a MPA inside the lagoon. The plan also sets out the rules to be upheld for the artificial opening of the sandbar that separates the lagoon from the ocean. It is shown that it is relevant to study the local ecological knowledge (LEK) in order (1) to understand the fishery related ecological issues within the lagoon and (2) to highlight an existing conflict between two fishermen communities. Studying the LEK allowed a clear representation of the factors that must be taken into account when defining the management plan. Furthermore, the LEK study in itself creates an appropriate place for inter-community debate and it enhances the acceptance of the future management plan.

Identifying the issues and options for managing the social impacts of Marine Protected Areas on a small fishing community

The implementation Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) creates a need for fishermen to adapt fishing practices. The change can therefore impact (both positively and negatively) upon the fishing community. MPA managers who miss out the social context in management decisions and fail to acknowledge the unique nature of fishing activities and responses to change are risking the future ability of MPAs to meet stakeholders’ needs. To inform management, this research uses a structured interview methodology to gain quantitative and qualitative data from fishermen operating in a case study area. The results demonstrate that the marine environment in the case study area supports a small scale, profitable fishing industry where the well-being of the respondents is linked to their fishing activity. To maintain a sustainable industry there is a need to align the objectives of the new proposed MPAs (Marine Conservation Zones) with fishery objectives and create systems for the co-management of marine resources supported by collaborative monitoring programmes.

Incorporation of Spatial and Economic Analyses of Human-Use Data in the Design of Marine Protected Areas

Social, economic, and ecological criteria contribute to the successful design, implementation, and management of marine protected areas (MPAs). In the context of California's Marine Life Protection Act Initiative, we developed a set of methods for collecting, compiling, and analyzing data about the spatial extent and relative economic importance of commercial and recreational fishing. We interviewed 174 commercial fishers who represented the major fisheries in the initiative's north-central coast region, which extends from Point Arena south to Pigeon Point. These fishers provided data that we used to map the extent of each of the fishing grounds, to weight the relative importance of areas within the grounds, to characterize the operating costs of each fishery, and to analyze the potential economic losses associated with proposed marine protected areas. A regional stakeholder group used the maps and impact analyses in conjunction with other data sets to iteratively identify economic and ecological trade-offs in designations of different areas as MPAs at regional, port, and fishery extents. Their final proposed MPA network designated 20% of state waters as MPAs. Potential net economic loss ranged from 1.7% to 14.2% in the first round of network design and totaled 6.3% in the final round of design. This process is a case study in the application of spatial analysis to validate and integrate local stakeholder knowledge in marine planning.

Marine protected areas and the coral reefs of traditional settlements in the Exumas, Bahamas

This paper is about modeling the perceived social impacts of three proposed marine protected areas (MPAs), each designed to protect coral reefs. The paper argues that shared perceptions of these impacts have resulted in different community-level responses to these MPA proposals. The study is uniquely situated in the Bahamas where the government has approved setting aside 30 No-take MPAs (including three under study here) to protect the coastal marine environment. The paper is based on 572 interviews conducted during eight field trips with members of six traditional settlements in the Exuma Islands and Cays in the central Bahamas. Overall, 34% of the census population of these settlements was interviewed at least once. Key findings are that an MPA can impact in either positive or negative ways (a) community agency by the process of siting, (b) community resilience by eliminating or supporting some components of their traditional adaptations to social and natural environments, and (c) community identity by precluding or protecting customary marine access. MPA impacts to local communities determine whether those communities will support or resist proposed MPAs.