Proportion Of Gross National Product Research Articles

Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment Inflow to Ethiopia: Time Series Evidence (ARDL Approach)

In low income country foreign direct investment is taken as the next best alternative source to fill the gap between domestic savings and the required investment for economic growth. While its inflows to Ethiopia are the lowest by a wide margin both in actual quantity and as a proportion of gross national product (GNP). This study deals the empirical relation between FDI inflow and its determinants in Ethiopia by employing Autoregressive distributed lag model for the time period covering from 1981 to 2018. The stationarity properties of the data was detected using Augmented Dickey–Fuller (ADF) and Phillip–Perron (PP) unit root test and the result indicates all the variables are stationary at level and first difference calling the effectiveness of ARDL model. The ARDL bound test used to test the existence of long-run link among the variables and the result confirmed that there is long run relationship among FDI and independent variables. The results indicated that the FDI flows to Ethiopian economy are determined by the degree of trade openness; domestic market size proxied by per capita GDP; domestic bank credit; rate of inflation; human capital and official exchange rate in the long-run and trade openness; rate of inflation and official exchange rate in its short run dynamics. The policy which creates favorable environments for domestic credit institution; predictable official exchange market and uninflated domestic price situation enables to harvest the highest possible expected benefits from FDI inflow. Keywords: FDI, ARDL, Bound test, ECM, Ethiopia DOI: 10.7176/IAGS/85-01 Publication date: August 31 st 2020

Infant mortality in the United States.

The infant mortality rate (IMR) of 6.0 per 1000 live births in the United States in 2013 is nearly the highest among developed countries. Moreover, the IMR among blacks is >twice that among whites-11.11 versus 5.06 deaths per 1000 live births.This higher IMR and racial disparity in IMR is due to a higher preterm birth rate (11.4% of live births in 2013) and higher IMR among term infants. The United States also ranks near the bottom for maternal mortality and life expectancy among the developed nations-despite ranking highest in the proportion of gross national product spent on health care. This suggests that factors other than health care contribute to the higher IMR and racial disparity in IMR. One factor is disadvantaged socioeconomic status. All of the actionable determinates that negatively impact health-personal behavior, social factors, heath-care access and quality and the environment-disproportionately affect the poor. Addressing disadvantaged socioeconomic status by improving access to quality health care and increasing social expenditures would have the greatest impact on the USA's IMR and racial disparity in IMR.

Millennium Development Goals

Journal of Paediatrics and Child HealthVolume 51, Issue 6 p. 649-649 Heads UpFree Access Millennium Development Goals First published: 02 June 2015 https://doi.org/10.1111/jpc.12922 edited by Craig Mellis (craig.mellis@sydney.edu.au) AboutSectionsPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat The Millennium Development Goals were set by the United Nations in 2000, adopted by 189 countries, and set goals to be achieved by 2015, including the eradication of extreme poverty and improvements in child mortality, maternal health and primary education. A supplement of Archives of Diseases in Childhood describes progress.1 Deaths in <5-year-old children fell from 12.7 million in 1990 to 6.3 million in 2013, meaning 17 000 fewer children die every day. Enrolment in primary education in developing countries rose from 82% in 1999 to 90% in 2010, although this still leaves 57 million age-eligible children out of school. John Vince from Papua New Guinea (PNG) reports on Oceania.2 Although mortality rates remain higher in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders than the rest of the population, their rates fell by almost 50% from 2002 to 2012. The proportion of gross national product allocated to health varied from 3% in PNG (equivalent to US$35–40) to 14% in Kiribati. Infectious diseases (pneumonia, meningitis, diarrhoeal diseases, malaria, tuberculosis) are the leading causes of child mortality in the low-income countries. Immunisation rates are suboptimal, and pneumococcal conjugate vaccines are only given in Australia and New Zealand. Malnutrition affects 11–18% of children in PNG, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. Progress has been made in all countries of Oceania, often despite formidable obstacles. References 1Beattie RM et al. Arch. Dis. Child. 2015; 100 (Suppl. 1): s1. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 2Vince JD. Arch. Dis. Child. 2015; 100 (Suppl. 1): s63– 65. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar Reviewer: David Isaacs, david.isaacs@health.nsw.gov.au Volume51, Issue6June 2015Pages 649-649 ReferencesRelatedInformation

Does America Really Need More Infrastructure?: Lessons from the Debate About the Role of the Railroads in the Development of the American West

This article compares and contrasts two debates about the role of infrastructure in American economic growth and development. The contemporary policy debate revolves around the extent to which the observed decline in public works investment since 1960, measured as a proportion of gross national product, has been a cause of the coincident decline of productivity over the same period. An earlier debate in the economic history field revolved around whether the railroads were “indispensable” to America's economic growth and how the building of a rail network affected the shape of that growth. The comparison reveals that just as the first debate went down many blind alleys, so did the second one. At the same time, however, after a long period of discussion and gestation, some firm conclusions arose in both controversies. In the infrastructure case, the overall consensus is that America is probably investing enough in infrastructure overall but that the question is too broad to be meaningful for policy makers. As a result, the focus has shifted to specific kinds of investments in specific areas.

Health reform and rationing in Israel.

Rationing of health care services as a means for controlling health spending is receiving increasing attention in most health care systems today. Explicitrationinghasbecomeanissuenotonlyin the United States, which spends the highest proportion of gross national product (GNP) on health in the world, but also in countries that traditionally have controlled health spending more successfully. Rapid developments inmedicaltechnology andincreasingdemandsderivingfromchangingtastesanddemographictrendsstrainhealthcarebudgets. Israel, in the context of its recent health system reform, has made rationing explicit by defining a detailed “basic basket of services” to which all citizens would be assured access through a system of universal insurance, and by creating a process for updating the basket. Although experience is still limited, Israel’s experiment provides a unique opportunity to examine how rationing might evolve in the context of structural arrangements under consideration in a number ofcountries. What follows is a discussion of the Israeli health care system, the recent reform, and its implementation. We then focus on the evolution of the processes for determining and updating the basic basket of services and provide a case study involving the addition of a new drug to the basket. Next we consideroptions for the future. We conclude by pointing out how the Israeli experience is relevant for

Media Functionality and the Principle of Relative Constancy: An Explanation of the VCR Aberration

The introduction and diffusion of the videocassette recorder (VCR) coincided with an increase in consumer spending on mass media as a proportion of gross national product. This article attempts to explain this apparent aberration to the principle of relative constancy by analyzing both the pattern of consumer expenditures on all mass media and the functionality of the VCR in relation to other media. An examination of audience needs and uses of the VCR suggests that the VCR offers a range of functions that implicate both mass communication and interpersonal communication. Thus, the VCR is both a functional competitor and a functional complement to existing mass media. The implications for the study of new media include a suggestion that functional analysis of media may provide an additional explanatory power for the mechanism of consumer spending on mass media.

Reshaping the Health-Care State

Health Care Has Been Called ‘The World's Most successful industry’. That success is long-standing. In every nation for which we have reliable long-term evidence the proportion of Gross National Product devoted to health care is much higher than was the cast a generation ago. The state has been central to that expansion. In all advanced industrial nations it regulates health care industries; in many it pays most of the cost of care; and in some it directly employs those who do the caring. In the 1980s, however, most countries tried to slow down the growth of health care spending, or even to cut it absolutely. The ‘health care state’ is as a consequence being reshaped across the advanced capitalist world: its power structures are changing; the conditions under which it funds and delivers services are being altered; and its relations with the ‘consumers’ of care are being transformed.

Converting Resources from Military to Non-Military Uses

As a proportion of gross national product, U.S. military spending has declined steadily since the mid-1980s. The end of the Cold War has given rise to calls for even more cuts in military spending. In early 1992, President George Bush proposed to reduce military spending by 3 percent per year, in real dollars, for the next five years. The Democratic leadership in the House of Representatives countered with a plan calling for substantially deeper cuts. Any substantial changes in military expenditures imply a “conversion” of physical and human resources from military to nonmilitary uses. This article will focus on some distinctive characteristics of the U.S. military sector and on some adjustment costs that reduced military spending are likely to impose on military industries, occupations, regions, and communities.

Effect of Ambulatory Surgery Policy Provisions on Medical Expense Insurance Claims

Effect of Ambulatory Surgery Policy Provisions on Medical Expense Insurance claims Introduction From 1965 to 1987 national medical expenditures rose at an annual rate of approximately 10 percent. (1) The proportion of Gross National Product spent on national medical care increased from about 6 percent to more than 11 percent. In 1987 private health insurance funds paid for 32 percent of national medical care; 39 percent of national health dollars went to hospital care alone (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1988). These figures demonstrate the continued real growth of health care costs in the United States, the large absolute dollar amounts associated with providing medical services, the importance of the private sector's role in funding care, and the effect of hospitalization costs on total medical spending. Economic theory and empirical evidence indicate that costsharing by insureds decreases total medical claim costs. (2) Traditionally insurance plans have required insureds to share the cost of medical services through policywide deductible and coinsurance provisions, up to a designated out-of-pocket maximum amount. Since the early 1980's insurers also have offered policies with specific surgical costsharing provisions in addition to those in effect policywide. Higher deductible or coinsurance requirements for inpatient surgery relative to outpatient surgery are expected to induce the substitution of outpatient for inpatient surgery, and decrease surgical claim costs and in turn total medical costs. This study examines policies which encourage use of ambulatory surgery and investigates the effectiveness of policy design in reducing surgical and total medical care claim costs. The Rand Health Insurance Experiment offers the most comprehensive evidence to date on the effect of insurance policy design on the demand for medical services (Manning et al., 1987). The Rand experiment finds that policywide costsharing decreases demand for total medical services. Evidence also indicates that lower costsharing requirements for outpatient care, surgical and nonsurgical, does not decrease total medical expenditures by reducing inpatient expenditures. However, neither the Rand experiment nor nonexperimental demand studies address the effect of policy design which encourages usage of ambulatory surgery on insurer claim costs. Anecdotal evidence is not conclusive on the effect of policy design which encourages use of ambulatory surgery on insurer claim costs. Most reports exhibit little economic and statistical rigor. Many use firm or area specific data insufficient for producing results which may be generalized to a larger population. The study here improves on previous non-experimental demand analysis through use of a large data base covering 197,911 insureds from across the nation. The article begins with the theoretical model that provides the basis for the empirical work. The model considers the insured's demand for medical and surgical services, both outpatient and inpatient, as a function of policy design and demographic characteristics. The econometric model and the data set used for testing are described, and the empirical results are reported. The study concludes with a brief summary of the major findings. Research Methods Theoretical Model of Demand In Grossman's (1972) model of the demand for health, individuals inherit an initial stock of health which depreciates over time. Health stock is treated as a durable commodity produced by consumers which may be increased through investment of monetary resources and time in medical services. The model implies that individuals partly determine the length and quality of their lives through their health investment decisions. That is, the insured chooses or demands quantities of health (and medical care) in order to maximize utility, subject to budget constraints. …

The Rocky Road to Privatization

Abstract. Three main types of privatization are found in the United States: (1) lower proportion of Gross National Product preempted by the public sector, leaving correspondingly more for the private sector, (2) transferring present government enterprises to private organizations; and (3) contracting out the production and delivery of services financed by public funds. Most discussions of “contracting out,” which come from the “public choice” school of economics and public administration, mainly emphasize theoretical economic advantages. They also suppose that the practice can eradicate political machinations. In contrast, this evaluation takes into account the practices’intensely political environment. Many of the advantages attributed to contracting out often are not realized. The practice in many cases can save money. But successes are likely to be achieved only with projects meeting certain narrow specifications.

Profit Incentives and Technical Efficiency in the Production of Hospital Care

Between 1970 and 1983 the proportion of gross national product devoted to hospital care nearly doubled, rising from 2.8 percent to 4.5 percent. During the same period, the average annual percentage change in the hospital room component of the consumer price index was 11.9 percent. Beyond such performance indicators, the hospital industry has been undergoing significant structural changes in the way in which hospital care is provided. One important structural change has been the growth of for-profit hospitals. In 1960, only 2.2 percent of hospital beds were controlled by for-profit hospitals. By 1982, the proportion of for-profit beds had risen to 7 percent. Overlooking the sociological implications, many health care analysts have suggested that a continued movement in the direction of profit incentives in the production of hospital care might significantly improve the industry's perceived lackluster economic performance [5; 7]. These individuals, arguing from the theory of property rights, believe that the nonprofit hospital is inherently inefficient because no individual's income is tied to economic performance. Furthermore, it is believed that the nonprofit hospital administrator may cause the hospital to pursue goals other than strict cost minimization [12; 20; 22]. With a partial claim to residual revenues transferred to the for-profit administrator and the ever present fear of displacement for poor economic performance, the for-profit administrator is thought to be less sensitive to the efficiency robbing behaviors plaguing the nonprofit hospital. While the theoretical case for such an outcome is relatively strong, empirically the case for superior for-profit hospital performance is unclear. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the relationship between hospital ownership and technical efficiency in the production of hospital care. In the following section of the paper a brief literature review is presented. This review is not intended to be exhaustive, rather, it is intended to show the reader the types of hypotheses previously considered and the inconclusive nature of previous work in the area of profit incentives and the production of hospital care. Following this, the

MILITARISM AND MORTALITY: An International Analysis of Arms Spending and Infant Death Rates

Examination of data from 141 countries showed that infant mortality rates for 1979 were positively correlated with the proportion of gross national product devoted to military spending (r = 0·23, p<0·01) and negatively correlated with indicators of economic development, health resources, and social spending. In a multivariate analysis controlling for per caput gross national product, arms spending remained a significant positive predictor of infant mortality rate (p<0·0001), while the proportion of the population with access to clean water, the number of teachers per head, and caloric consumption per head were negative predictors. The multivariate model accounted for much of the observed variance in infant mortality rate (R 2 = 0·78, p<0·0001), and showed good fit to similar data for the year 1972 (R 2 = 0·80, p<0·0001). The model was also predictive of infant mortality rates in subgroup analysis of underdeveloped, middle developed, and developed nations. Analysis of time trends confirmed that an increase in military spending presages a poor record of improvement in infant mortality rate. These findings support the hypothesis that arms spending is causally related to infant mortality.

Pharmacy in the twenty-first century: Results of a strategic-planning conference

The results of a strategic-planning conference that focused on what pharmacy in the United States would be like in the year 2010 are presented. The 50-plus conferees considered papers by 14 health-care thought-leaders and then, meeting in small groups, made projections for pharmacy based on four possible future scenarios: Continued Growth, Decline and Stagnation, Disciplined Society, and Transformation. Among the specific issues addressed in each scenario were the nature and quantity of pharmaceutical services sought, total drug volume, classes of drugs, and pharmacy practice location, pharmacy personnel needs, and which outcomes are most likely to occur. The Continued Growth option was thought to have the best chance of occurring. Major factors expected to influence pharmaceutical services over the next 25 years included an increasingly elderly population, more widespread health promotion and wellness activities, a decline in health-care expenditures as a proportion of Gross National Product, and an increase in home remedies. It was felt that most pharmacists will practice as part of mega-health-care enterprises or chain pharmacies.

An Alternative Answer to: Who Pays for Defense?

In a recent article (this Review, 63 [June, 1969]), Bruce Russett attempts to answer the title question by using two-variable regression analysis to estimate the “trade-off” relationships between the defense spending proportion of Gross National Product (GNP) and the other nondefense expenditure proportions of GNP for the 1939–68 period. This paper contends that Russett's method of analysis is misleading because it does not permit the detection of possible subperiod shifts in the trade-off relationships. The results of a multiple regression, dummy variable analysis indicate that significant shifts in both the sign and the numerical values of the trade-off relationships occurred between the three war periods and the peacetime period. Two attempts to identify the reasons for the shifts produced mixed results, but our tentative conclusion is that the shifts are related to subperiod differences in the unemployment rate and the methods of financing defense expenditures.

Role and training of health education aides.

THE current national expenditure for Thealth services represents 6 per cent of the Gross National Product (GNP). There is increasing concern in government circles that the expenditure for health services be better coordinated so that a greater benefit be derived from health-service expenditures. At the same time, there is a tendency to increase the amount of money spent for health services, and it is estimated that the proportion of Gross National Product spent for health services could be tripled to 120 billion dollars or $600 per person per year. Two basic concerns are perceived: first, that of efficiency of the system which might be measured in terms of costs-benefit ratio; and, second, that of availability, i.e., that health services be so abundantly located that all persons may avail themselves of these resources. Anderson' has postulated two fundamental characteristics which condition the operation of the entire structure of health services and which are related to the problems of efficiency and availability. These elements, which he characterizes as exceedingly elastic, are (1) the variability of the perception of illness and what people do about it, and (2) the necessary discretionary judgment and responsibility (together with the authority) that is required of physicians, the chief gate-keepers of the system. Taking into consideration both of these fundamental characteristics, the variability of perception of illness and what people do about it is reflected in the fact that, although we have such a relatively large expenditure for health services and have a great deal of knowledge in terms of prevention and cure of disease, there are still large segments of our population, particularly in the lower socioeconomic levels, with higher than average incidences of disease and mortality. The use of nonprofessionals has increased considerably with the advent of government-financed programs to aid the disadvantaged and the poor. Reissman2 estimates that 150,000 nonprofessional positions have been established through poverty and other federal legislation. The use of such nonprofessional aides has been known in the field of public health for a number of years: among the Indians and Eskimos of Canada as of 1958, among farm workers in California in 1961,3 and among the Navajo Indians as early as the middle 1950s. The use of such personnel in overseas programs, often under the title of village worker or community aide, is well-documented.

The Fight Against Inflation in Canada

Canadian postwar experience with inflation has closely paralleled the American with the exception that its fed eral government budget has been balanced for most of the pe riod, capital expenditure has been a higher proportion of gross national product, and foreign investment in Canada has been extremely heavy. Recent attitudes towards inflation reflect an intense reaction on the part of investors towards govern ment financial measures and a concern that returning prosper ity will produce price rises. Lessons of Canadian experience raise some serious questions as to the efficacy of fiscal and monetary policy.