Promotion Of Mistrust Research Articles

The association between parents' ethnic socialization and positive and negative interethnic contact among majority and minority groups in China and the moderating role of essentialism

AbstractIn a multiethnic country like China, ethnic membership is an important dimension of social construction, and interethnic contact is a necessary component of social interactions. Family is the context where ethnic socialization takes place and where parents play a relevant role. The present study focused on the Hui‐Han interethnic context. Measures of perceived parent's ethnic socialization, interethnic contact, and essentialism were administrated to Hui minority (N = 560) and Han majority (N = 954) secondary students. Results indicated that parents' positive ethnic socialization (cultural socialization/pluralism, promotion of harmony) was associated with greater positive and lower negative contact, while negative ethnic socialization (preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust) had opposite effects. Essentialist views of ethnicity moderated the associations of perceived parents' positive ethnic socialization with positive contact: the association between positive ethnic socialization and positive contact was stronger among individuals with lower (vs. higher) essentialist views. Results did not differ across the majority and the minority group. Implications for prompting positive interethnic interactions and preventing negative contact are discussed.

An Examination of Peer Ethnic-Racial Socialization and Alcohol Intoxication Among Latino College Students

ABSTRACT Integrating students into their college community is viewed as essential for student retention. However, these efforts may expose students to a drinking subculture, which potentially threatens their academic success. This threat appears even more pronounced for students of color, who must also navigate racial obstacles such as prejudice and discrimination, which further predispose them to greater levels of problem drinking. Drawing off survey data from a Latino sample of college students, I examine the importance of peer socialization messages about ethnicity and race (peer ethnic-racial socialization; peer ERS) and how they influence levels of alcohol intoxication. A confirmatory factor analysis identified three dimensions of peer ERS: cultural socialization, preparation for bias, and promotion of mistrust. Peer messages stressing cultural socialization reduced levels of alcohol intoxication by promoting a strong ethnic identity. In addition, respondents actively involved in fraternities/sororities and student clubs/organizations reported reduced prevalence of alcohol intoxication when exposed to greater levels of all three dimensions of peer ERS. I discuss these findings within the broader ethnic-racial socialization literature as well as how they might be used by administrators to improve retention for students of color.

Does ethnic-racial socialization matter? A within-person analysis of racial discrimination and sleep health among Black and Latinx emerging adults

ObjectivesEmerging work suggests that racism-related stressors may contribute to adverse sleep health, yet little is known about how culturally relevant resources may influence the relationship between racism-related stressors and adverse sleep health. The aim of this study was to examine associations between weekly reports of racial hassles and young adults’ sleep health (i.e., sleep onset latency, total sleep time, sleep quality) and to determine whether various forms of parental ethnic-racial socialization would moderate these associations. MethodsParticipants were 141 college students (Mage = 20.7 years, standard deviation (SD) = 1.22, 70% female) who identified as either Black (n = 88; 62.4%) or Latinx (n = 53; 37.6%). Participants completed an initial 1.5-hour assessment in the laboratory and 4 weekly sleep diary surveys (assessed sleep health and depressive symptoms). ResultsWeekly racial hassles are related to greater sleep onset latency, decreased total sleep time, and poorer sleep quality. The promotion of mistrust and cultural socialization significantly moderated associations between weekly racial hassles and sleep onset latency and total sleep time, respectively. ConclusionsThese results provide supportive evidence that parental ethnic-racial socialization practices, a preemptive cultural resource, may be an understudied mechanism in sleep health research. Future research is needed to clarify the role of parental ethnic-racial socialization in promoting sleep health equity among youth and young adults.

Ethnic–racial socialization, family climate, and anxiety among African American and Latinx emerging adults.

Ethnic-racial socialization (ERS) is an essential strategy that families of color utilize to discuss race, racism, and promote ethnic-racial pride. These strategies are necessary to help youth navigate a racialized world, particularly in emerging adulthood as youth transition away from home. There are mixed findings about the psychological benefits of messages focused on racial barriers, which raise questions about whether certain ERS messages may elicit anxiety symptoms and if there are conditions (e.g., family climate) under which ERS messages are most beneficial. Further, the interplay between ERS and family climate may vary across ethnic-racial groups. Thus, the present study examined the associations between ERS (i.e., cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust) and anxiety symptoms, and whether the moderating effects of family climate (i.e., cohesion, conflict) varied for 142 African American (AA; 83% women) and 275 Latinx (LX; 70.5% women) college students (M = 18.89, SD = 1.06). Cultural socialization and family cohesion were negatively associated with anxiety symptoms, while promotion of mistrust and family conflict were positively associated with anxiety symptoms. Preparation for bias was not associated with anxiety symptoms. For both AA and LX youth who reported high family cohesion, cultural socialization was associated with lower anxiety symptoms. Additionally, among AA youth who reported high levels of family conflict, cultural socialization was associated with lower levels of anxiety symptoms. The findings have important implications for understanding the unique and interactive effects of ERS and family climate on anxiety symptoms for AA and LX emerging adults. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Learning about discrimination during childhood: Implications for racial trauma among Asians and Asian Americans during the pandemic.

Although the COVID-19 pandemic has led to a sharp rise in anti-Asian hate crimes, limited data exist on racial trauma and its effects on Asian Americans. The current study investigated how racial discrimination and parental ethnic-racial socialization (cultural socialization, preparation for bias, and promotion of mistrust) were associated with racial trauma among Asian Americans in young adulthood. Increased cultural socialization and preparation for bias in childhood were hypothesized to be associated with lower levels of racial trauma, whereas increased racial discrimination and promotion of mistrust were hypothesized to predict higher levels of racial trauma. Based on a retrospective report of young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic, this longitudinal nationwide study within the United States examined 133 Asian and Asian American young adults ages 18-30 who participated in an online survey regarding ethnic identity, childhood ethnic-racial socialization practices, racial discrimination-related experiences, and racial trauma. Lifetime discrimination, but not COVID-19-related discrimination, was associated with higher levels of racial trauma. Greater levels of preparation for bias during childhood predicted lower levels of racial trauma in young adulthood. Contrary to the hypothesis, greater levels of cultural socialization predicted higher levels of racial trauma. Promotion of mistrust was not associated with later racial trauma outcomes. The current study underscores the long-term impacts of parent-child discussions about racism (i.e., preparation for bias) to address racial trauma in young adulthood. Future research should further examine cultural socialization to determine its effects on racial trauma among Asian Americans.

An Intersectional Approach to Parental Ethnic/Racial Socialization Practices and Adolescent Academic Outcomes

Abstract: Amid ethnic/racial stratification and oppression, parents’ engagement in ethnic/racial socialization (ERS) practices foster resilience and positive outcomes in youth. Research has found inconsistent effects of ERS practices on adolescent academic outcomes and has neglected the intersectionality of race/ethnicity and gender. Using an intersectional approach and longitudinal design, we explored how N = 358 parents’ ERS practices (cultural socialization, preparation for bias, and promotion of mistrust) predicted academic outcomes among male and female Black/African American, Asian American, Latinx, and White/European American high schoolers 1 year later. Ethnic/racial group differences in ERS practices were consistent across youth gender. Our intersectional approach revealed that cultural socialization predicted Asian American boys’ academic achievement and that preparation for bias predicted Black/African American boys’ academic achievement. Future studies should continue to explore the gendered construction of ERS messages and how they shape academic outcomes differently across diverse samples.

Parent's ethnic-racial socialization practices in families with young children experiencing homelessness

Ethnic-racial socialization (ERS) is an important developmental process that may have crucial significance for childrearing in families contending with discrimination or structural inequalities. Although the majority of families who experience homelessness are from historically marginalized populations in the United States, there is a dearth of research on ERS among families experiencing homelessness, particularly those with young children. To address this gap, the present study examined multiple dimensions of ERS reported by parents in a sample of families residing in an emergency shelter. Participants included 69 caregivers (84.1% female; Mage = 31.3; 69.6% Black/African American, 10.1% White/European American, 8.7% Native American/American Indian, 5.8% Multiracial, 5.8% Other) and their young children (63.8% male; Mage = 5.2; 63.8% Black/African American, 4.3% White/European American, 7.2% Native American/American Indian, 21.7% Multiracial, 2.9% Other). Results supported the hypothesis that caregivers experiencing homelessness would engage in ERS with their young children, with caregivers focusing more on cultural socialization than preparation for bias or promotion of mistrust. Families headed by 2 parents, who were employed, and had more children, engaged in more cultural socialization. Preparation for bias was related to child's ethnicity-race (Black), older age, higher verbal ability, and more siblings, whereas promotion of mistrust was related to parent attributes (e.g., older age, lower education). Unexpectedly, ERS was not related to parents’ income, distress, or perceived community discrimination, or to child gender. Results underscore the importance of understanding ERS in the contexts of sociocultural ecology and developmental timing.

Racial Discrimination and Conduct Problems Among Black American Youth: The Moderating Effect of Ethnic Racial Socialization

PurposeExperiencing racial discrimination in everyday life can have lasting detrimental effects on Black American youth. Conduct problems are one of the consequences of discriminatory experiences. The present study examined whether the effects of discrimination on conduct problems vary by the levels of ethnic-racial socialization youth experience. MethodsA sample of 472 Black American youth provided five waves of survey data from ages 11-15 (June 2013 – December 2017). We tested the moderating effect of different types of ethnic-racial socialization (preparation for bias, cultural socialization, promotion of mistrust) on the association between discrimination and conduct problems using logistic regression analyses. ResultsWe found that cultural socialization significantly moderates the effects of racial discrimination on conduct problems. Promotion of mistrust was directly associated with increased risk for conduct problems. DiscussionFindings suggest that high levels of cultural socialization are beneficial to mitigate the effect of discrimination on conduct problems. Promotion of mistrust needs to be avoided but future research is warranted to investigate if promotion of mistrust can be helpful to youth in certain contexts.

In This Together? Exploring Moderating and Mediating Effects of Shared Racial Fate on the Predictive Role of Racial Socialization and Discrimination on Black Activism

This study examined the predictive role of reported racial socialization (i.e., preparation for bias and promotion of mistrust), racial discrimination, and shared racial fate on sociopolitical activism in a sample of 353 Black Americans. In addition, we examined the moderating and mediating role of shared racial fate as a variable by which the other contextual factors predict sociopolitical activism. Results from multiple regression analyses indicated that preparation for bias and racial discrimination were the only unique predictors of sociopolitical activism. Results also indicated that shared racial fate significantly moderated the relationship between reported racial discrimination and sociopolitical activism. Finally, shared racial fate significantly mediated the relationship between promotion of mistrust and sociopolitical activism. These findings are timely as we are at a critical point in U.S. history where there are widespread calls for social justice. We provide insight into factors that may contribute to sociopolitical engagement. Implications for culturally responsive pedagogy, curricula, and interventions are discussed.

Ethnic-Racial Socialization, Ethnic-Racial Identity, and Depressive Symptoms in Korean Adolescents in the United States and China.

The United States and China are top two receiving countries of Korean immigrants in modern history. Minority families in ethnically-racially diverse societies, such as the US and China, use various ethnic-racial socialization practices (cultural socialization, promotion of mistrust, preparation for bias) to help their children navigate the world, yet research in non-U.S. contexts is scarce. To examine the specificity versus generalizability of ethnic-racial socialization and its implications, this study compared the prevalence of ethnic-racial socialization reported by Korean American (n = 408; Mage = 14.76, SD = 1.91; 48.30% female) and Korean Chinese (n = 267; Mage = 15.24, SD = 1.66; 58.90% female) youth. Moreover, this study examined how various ethnic-racial socialization practices relate to the youth's ethnic-racial identity, and subsequently, depressive symptoms. Although Korean American youth reported more frequent ethnic-racial socialization compared to their Korean Chinese counterparts, cultural socialization (but not preparation for bias nor promotion of mistrust) had a comparable negative indirect association with depressive symptoms via ethnic-racial identity across both groups. Thus, although the rates of parental ethnic-racial socialization are context-specific, parental cultural socialization may be similarly beneficial for Korean ethnic-racial minority youth's identity development, and in turn, psychological outcomes, whether in a Western individualistic society or an Eastern collectivistic society.

Racial discrimination and the moderating effects of racial and ethnic socialization on the mental health of Asian American youth.

This study investigates trajectories of racial discrimination, racial and ethnic socialization (RES), and their interaction effects with social positions (nativity and gender) on mental health. A longitudinal study of 786 Filipino American (FA) and Korean American (KA) youth from the Midwestern United States (Mage.Wave1 =15) confirmed that discrimination increased and significantly contributed to the upward trend of mental health distress, whereas the impact of RES differed by its type and by ethnicity. For example, promotion of mistrust and ethnic-heritage socialization were protective among U.S.-born FA youth, but for KA youth, preparation for bias was protective regardless of nativity and gender. This study highlights the importance of considering social positions to better understand the role of RES in youth psychological adjustment.

Impact of online racism on psychological distress and alcohol use severity: Testing ethnic-racial socialization and silence about race as moderators

Given the psychological deficits associated with online racism, we examined whether ethnic-racial socialization (cultural socialization, promotion of mistrust, and preparation for racial bias) and silence about race, would moderate the impact of online racism on psychological distress and alcohol use severity by conducting latent moderated structural equation modeling with data collected from 380 racial/ethnic minority young adults (Mage = 32.25, SD = 11.28). Online racism was significantly and positively related to distress and alcohol use severity. Promotion of mistrust and preparation for bias moderated the link between online-mediated exposure to racist reality and psychological distress such that this relationship was significant at low to mean levels of these messages but not at high levels; however, individuals reporting a high frequency of messages sustained higher psychological distress. Promotion of mistrust and silence about race exacerbated alcohol use associated with racism in personal online interactions. Silence about race moderated alcohol use associated with vicarious exposure to online racism such that the link was significant at high levels of silence messages but not at low to mean levels. Findings seem unconvincing of ethnic-racial socialization as a protective function and supportive of silence about race as a detrimental socialization practice in dealing with online racism.

Racial discrimination and alcohol problems among African American young adults: Examining the moderating effects of racial socialization by parents and friends.

Racial discrimination is a stressor that may put African Americans at risk for alcohol use and related problems. We examined whether experiences of blatant (racist events) and subtle (racial microaggressions) forms of racial discrimination were associated with alcohol consumption and alcohol problems among African American young adults, and whether childhood/adolescence racial socialization by parents and friends moderated these associations. The sample included 383 African American young adults (Mage = 20.65, SD = 2.28; 81% female) who completed an electronic survey in Fall, 2017. Hierarchical linear regression analyses were conducted in Mplus. Experiences of racist events and racial microaggressions were associated with higher levels of alcohol consumption and more alcohol problems. Racial socialization by friends, but not parents, moderated these associations. Specifically, cultural socialization by friends buffered the effect of racist events on alcohol consumption and alcohol problems, whereas promotion of mistrust by friends exacerbated the effect of racial microaggressions on alcohol problems. Both blatant and subtle forms of racial discrimination were associated with higher risk for alcohol use or problems among African American young adults. Racial socialization by friends while growing up may play an important role in alcohol use outcomes during young adulthood. Findings highlight the importance of considering different forms of racial discrimination and emphasize the unique roles of racial socialization across different social contexts (i.e., parent and peers or friends) in relation to psychosocial outcomes among African American individuals. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Perceived ethnic discrimination, ethnic-racial socialization, and substance use among ethnic minority adolescents

Perceived discrimination is a significant problem among ethnic minority adolescents and has been consistently linked to negative outcomes, including substance use, although few studies examine this relation with more than one time point. The present study adds to the literature by examining whether ethnic-racial socialization moderates the effects of perceived discrimination at time 1 on recent substance use six months later in a sample of ethnic minority, public high school students in Southern California. The results from analyses of survey data showed that perceived discrimination did not predict the likelihood of the outcomes, and they suggest that discrimination based on attributes other than ethnicity, such as immigration or documentation status, may be operating in the sample. Future research should simultaneously analyze effects of discrimination by type of attribute as well as level (e.g., intragroup, intergroup, and structural). With regard to ethnic-racial socialization in the multivariate models, cultural socialization was negatively related to the likelihood of the outcomes. Preparation for bias was positively related to the likelihood of the outcomes. Promotion of mistrust was not statistically significantly related to the likelihood of the outcomes. Although the socialization variables did not moderate the effect of perceived discrimination, they were clearly related to substance use in multiple ways, suggesting that future research continue to distinguish the effects of socialization by type to better understand how they can be addressed to optimize youth outcomes.

I Wish for My Daughters to Remain Under My ‘Wings’: An Exploration of Bangladeshi Immigrant Mothers’ Socialisation Process of Raising Adolescent Daughters in Melbourne, Australia

The migration literature has shown that immigrant parents face significant challenges with regard to parenting in a new culture, especially with the children in early adolescence, a period of significant physical, social and emotional change for human being. This article demonstrates that Bangladeshi mothers, who have spent a major part of their lives in Bangladeshi cultural contexts, face different socio-cultural contexts raising their young daughters in Australia. Using qualitative methods, this article discusses Bangladeshi mothers parenting experiences who have daughters’ between the ages of 10 to 14 years. Thematic analysis of the data revealed two broad themes: perceived benefits of raising daughters in Australia and mothers’ anxieties around daughters’ rearing and promotion of mistrust; and two sub-themes:perceived cultural differences: Bangladeshi vs. Australian culture and perceived risk of shame, loss of family reputation and honour. The findings reveal how mothers’ construct their daughters’ identities as Bengali women as they follow cautionary parenting in a foreign culture through promotion of mistrust about inter-racial communications.

Ethnic-racial socialization in Latino families: The influence of mothers' socialization practices on adolescent private regard, familism, and perceived ethnic-racial discrimination.

Cultural value endorsement and ethnic-racial identity promote Latino/a adolescent positive adaptation and mitigate the negative impacts of perceived ethnic-racial discrimination. This study explored the intergenerational process of how adolescents develop these cultural characteristics in concert with their experiences of discrimination, focusing on the role of youth-reported maternal ethnic-racial socialization processes. Participants included 175 Latino/a adolescent-mother dyads recruited from the 7th and 8th grades in an understudied emerging immigrant destination. We tested the effects of maternal cultural characteristics (i.e., familism, private regard, and perceived discrimination) on the same adolescent outcomes through youth-reported maternal ethnic-racial socialization practices (i.e., cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust, and familism socialization, a novel construct introduced in this study). Three significant indirect pathways were identified. Higher maternal private regard was associated with both higher youth familism and higher youth private regard through greater youth-reported familism socialization, and higher maternal private regard was associated with more perceived youth discrimination through greater youth-reported preparation for bias. Our results highlight maternal private regard as particularly important for understanding how youth perceptions of socialization processes encourage the development of adolescent cultural characteristics and the benefit of using specific assessment tools, such as a familism socialization measure, to identify how ethnic-racial socialization processes serve as intergenerational links. Directions for future research and implications for intervention are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

What types of racial messages protect Asian American adolescents from discrimination? A latent interaction model.

In this brief report, the authors investigate how different types of parental racial-ethnic socialization messages (i.e., cultural socialization/pluralism, promotion of mistrust, and preparation for racial bias) moderate the relationship between racial discrimination and psychological distress in a sample of 187 Asian American adolescents. Results indicated a significant positive relationship between racial discrimination and psychological distress. Cultural socialization/pluralism and promotion of mistrust also moderated the racial discrimination and psychological distress link. Specifically, for adolescents reporting low frequencies of cultural socialization/pluralism messages, discrimination was positively associated with psychological distress, suggesting cultural socialization/pluralism messages may be a protective factor. Discrimination was also positively associated with psychological distress for adolescents reporting high frequencies of promotion of mistrust, suggesting that promotion of mistrust may be a risk factor. Overall, the findings emphasize the important role that racial-ethnic socialization messages can have on psychological distress among Asian American adolescents who experience racial discrimination. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The Role of Parents’ Ethnic-Racial Socialization Practices in the Discrimination–Depression Link among Mexican-Origin Adolescents

The present study investigated the moderating role of parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices (T1) in the link between adolescents’ discrimination experiences (T1–T3) and adolescent anxiety and depression, respectively (T1–T3). Using a 3-wave longitudinal design with multiple informants (adolescent, mother, father) reporting on parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices, the data analytic sample comprised a total of 251 (T1) Mexican-origin families from the midwestern United States. Mother and father reports of their own ethnic-racial socialization practices (i.e., cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust) were entered simultaneously into multilevel moderation models. Results from these multilevel moderation analyses indicated that fathers’ promotion of mistrust was a significant moderator in the adolescent discrimination–depression link over time. Specifically, fathers’ promotion of mistrust exacerbated the youth discrimination–depression association. Moreover, the difference between the moderating effects of fathers’ versus mothers’ promotion of mistrust on the youth discrimination–depression association was significant. Cultural socialization and preparation for bias did not significantly moderate the adolescent association between discrimination and mental health, regardless of parent gender (fathers or mothers) or mental health outcome (anxiety or depression). The results are discussed in light of a socioecological framework, with special emphasis on the importance of including (and differentiating between) both fathers and mothers in the investigation of ethnic-racial socialization and implications for future theory building, research, and clinical practice.

Use of Parental Racial Socialization with African American Toddler Boys

In this qualitative pilot study, 12 self-identified African American parents (six mother-father dyads, ages 25-43) shared (via in-depth, in-person interviews) culturally relevant socialization beliefs, practices and goals for raising their toddler boys (ages 12–33 months). Transcript analysis focused on understanding the prevalence of and rationale for racial socialization (i.e., messages addressing the significance and meaning of race and ethnicity), the specific content of those messages, and the methods and modes by which parents use racial socialization and/or plan to use it with their toddler sons. Results indicated parents of toddlers engaged in common racial socialization tenets varyingly, including cultural socialization, preparation for bias, and egalitarianism. However, promotion of mistrust was a tenet not typically engaged in by parent participants. The importance of elucidating the culturally-influenced context of parenting (specifically, the engagement in racial socialization) for caregivers of this young age group are discussed.

“You Just can’t Trust them”: Exploring the Memorable Messages Costa Rican Natives Recall about Race

This study uses memorable messages as a framework for understanding how Costa Rican youths are socialized about race. Through semi-structured interviews, twenty-three participants identified a total of 107 memorable messages, of which three themes emerged: (a) denial of racism, (b) preparation for bias, and (c) promotion of mistrust. Findings reveal that participants use memorable messages to make sense of racial hierarchies in Costa Rica while also highlighting patterns of racial socialization that are consistent across global contexts. In addition to examining the individual-structure dialectic, this research addresses post-racial and color-blind narratives that permeate discourses in Latin American nations.