Professional Rugby Union Club Research Articles

Are all hamstring injuries equal? A retrospective analysis of time to return to full training following BAMIC type 'c' and T-junction injuries in professional men's rugby union.

We aimed to determine whether the anatomical location (intramuscular tendon or T-Junction) of hamstring muscle injuries in professional men's rugby union associates with a prolonged time to return to full training and a higher rate of re-injury/subsequent injury. We reviewed the medical records of an Irish professional rugby union club to identify hamstring muscle injuries incurred across five seasons. Clinicians and players were not blinded to MRI results at the time of rehabilitation. A blinded musculoskeletal radiologist re-classified all included injuries (n = 91) according to the British Athletics Muscle Injury Classification framework. Players who sustained an injury with intramuscular tendon involvement required a longer time to return to full training compared to players who sustained an injury without intramuscular tendon involvement (78 days vs. 24 days). Players who sustained a biceps femoris injury with T-junction involvement did not require a longer time to return to full training compared to players who sustained a biceps femoris injury without T-junction involvement (29 days vs. 27 days). Injuries with either intramuscular tendon or T-junction involvement were not associated with an increased rate of re-injury/subsequent injury to the same limb (intramuscular tendon involvement - odds ratio = 0.96, T-junction involvement - odds ratio = 1.03). When a hamstring muscle injury involves the intramuscular tendon, the injured player and stakeholders should be made aware that a longer time to return to full training is likely required. T-junction involvement does not alter the expected clinical course of biceps femoris injuries.

Differences and variability of physical and technical characteristics among rugby union small-sided games performed within a preseason

This study aimed to investigate the differences in physical and technical characteristics among three specific rugby union small-sided games (SSG) and to examine the variability of these characteristics over three weeks within a preseason of a professional rugby union club. Eighteen backs and 22 forwards were recruited for the study. The three SSG designs were: backs only (SSG-B), forwards only (SSG-F) and both backs and forwards (SSG-BF). Physical characteristics were quantified using external (e.g., total distance covered [m·min−1]) and internal (i.e., Stagno's training impulse [AU·min−1]) load measures. Technical characteristics were quantified using the number of rucks, successful passes, unsuccessful passes, line breaks and tries per minute. The SSG-BF produced a greater high speed (>61%) running distance covered in comparison with SSG-B (1.97 vs. 1.32 m·min−1) and SSG-F (1.26 vs. 0.94 m·min−1), and more successful passes (9.47 vs. 9.36 count·min−1) and line breaks (0.98 vs. 0.65 count·min−1) than SSG-F. Conversely, all the other physical and technical characteristics were higher in SSG-B and SSG-F. All the physical and technical characteristics, except high speed (>61%) distance covered in forwards and unsuccessful passes and tries per minute, changed over days showing either a linear or quadratic pattern. Based on these findings, practitioners may implement position-specific SSG (i.e., SSG-B and SSG-F) to expose players to greater physical and technical characteristics. Furthermore, if SSGs were to be repeated across multiple days, practitioners should be aware of the possible variability in physical and technical characteristics due to potential adaptations to the constraints or the onset of fatigue.

MRI classification of calf injuries - a reliability study and correlation with return to play in professional rugby players.

To assess the validity and reliability of the calf injury classification system proposed by the Olympic Park group which focuses on connective tissue structure integrity on MRI. A retrospective study analysing calf muscle group injuries in an English Premiership professional rugby union club using the MRI classification proposed by the Olympic Park group. Classification on MRI examinations of 28 calf injuries sustained over a 6-year period was performed by three independent musculoskeletal radiologists to determine the inter-observer variability and correlation of the grade of injury with return-to-full-training (RTFT) time. RTFT time ranged from 5 to 110days (mean = 40.1, SD = 26.4) following calf muscle injury. The Olympic Park classification injury grade demonstrated moderate to strong correlation with RTFT time (Spearman's rank correlation coefficient, 0.661-0.715, p < 0.01). RTFT time was statistically different between different injury grades (one-way ANOVA, p < 0.01). Inter-observer agreement of the overall grade between radiologist pairs was fair to moderate (weighted kappa 0.406-0.583). The Olympic Park classification system demonstrates moderate to strong correlation with time to RTFT following calf injury. Inter-observer reliability is fair to moderate.

Identifying the Current State and Improvement Opportunities in the Information Flows Necessary to Manage Professional Athletes: A Case Study in Rugby Union.

In sporting environments, the knowledge necessary to manage athletes is built on information flows associated with player management processes. In current literature, there are limited case studies available to illustrate how such information flows are optimized. Hence, as the first step of an optimization project, this study aimed to evaluate the current state and the improvement opportunities in the player management information flow executed within the High-Performance Unit (HPU) at a professional rugby union club in England. Guided by a Business Process Management framework, elicitation of the current process architecture illustrated the existence of 18 process units and two core process value chains relating to player management. From the identified processes, the HPU management team prioritized 7 processes for optimization. In-depth details on the current state (As-Is) of the selected processes were extracted from semi-structured, interview-based process discovery and were modeled using Business Process Model and Notation (BPMN) and Decision Model and Notation (DMN) standards. Results were presented for current issues in the information flow of the daily training load management process, identified through a thematic analysis conducted on the data obtained mainly from focus group discussions with the main stakeholders (physiotherapists, strength and conditioning coaches, and HPU management team) of the process. Specifically, the current state player management information flow in the HPU had issues relating to knowledge creation and process flexibility. Therefore, the results illustrate that requirements for information flow optimization within the considered environment exist in the transition from data to knowledge during the execution of player management decision-making processes.

Digitally Optimizing the Information Flows Necessary to Manage Professional Athletes: A Case Study in Rugby Union.

Practical case studies elaborating end-to-end attempts to improve the quality of information flows associated with athlete management processes are scarce in the current sport literature. Therefore, guided by a Business Process Management (BPM) approach, the current study presents the outcomes from a case study to optimize the quality of strength and conditioning (S&C) information flow in the performance department of a professional rugby union club. Initially, the S&C information flow was redesigned using integral technology, activity elimination and activity automation redesign heuristics. Utilizing the Lean Startup framework, the redesigned information flow was digitally transformed by designing data collection, management and visualization systems. Statistical tests used to assess the usability of the data collection systems against industry benchmarks using the System Usability Scale (SUS) administered to 55 players highlighted that its usability (mean SUS score of 87.6 ± 10.76) was well above average industry benchmarks of similar systems (Grade A from SUS scale). In the data visualization system, 14 minor usability problems were identified from 9 cognitive walkthroughs conducted with the High-Performance Unit (HPU) staff. Pre-post optimization information quality was subjectively assessed by administering a standardized questionnaire to the HPU members. The results indicated positive improvements in all of the information quality dimensions (with major improvements to the accessibility) relating to the S&C information flow. Additionally, the methods utilized in the study would be especially beneficial for sporting environments requiring cost effective and easily adoptable information flow digitization initiatives which need to be implemented by its internal staff members.

A game for all shapes and sizes? Changes in anthropometric and performance measures of elite professional rugby union players 1999–2018

BackgroundRugby union player size has increased since the game turned professional in 1995. Changes in physical and performance capability over this period have yet to be fully described.HypothesisIncreases in player...

Physical characteristics of different professional rugby union competition levels

ObjectivesTo evaluate whether differences in physical characteristics (running-related and collision-related metrics) exist between four different professional rugby union competition levels. DesignWe collected and retrospectively analysed microsensor technology data from players of two professional rugby union clubs that competed across four different competition levels: International rugby union, European Rugby Champions Cup, PRO14 club competition, and British and Irish Cup. MethodsDifferences between competition levels were analysed using a one-way ANOVA test. The Tukey HSD test was completed to perform multiple pairwise-comparisons between the means of the competition levels and player positional groups. ResultsTen of the 12 microsensor technology derived physical characteristics were significantly different between competition levels. Collision load-, collisions-, and high metabolic load efforts-per minute all increased at higher competition levels. These differences were also noted across player positional groups. ConclusionsThe physical characteristics of rugby union match-play differ across competitions levels. Our data suggest that professional rugby union players require specific physical preparation for different competition levels. In particular, players are likely to need specific preparation and recovery for the higher collision intensity observed at higher competition levels.

Strategies used by professional rugby union clubs to manage players for artificial turf exposure.

The use of artificial turf on rugby pitches is increasingly commonplace but there is limited evidence around its effects on injury, recovery, and performance. It is unclear whether this uncertainty influences player management strategies in professional clubs. To understand how professional rugby union clubs in England approach player management for artificial turf, to explore how the beliefs of medical and strength/conditioning staff influence these decisions, and to determine whether differences exist between clubs with different levels of exposure to artificial surfaces. The study was a cross-sectional mixed methods study. Twenty-three medical and strength/conditioning staff members from 12 English Premiership Rugby Union clubs completed two bespoke questionnaires and participated in a semi-structured interview. Two-thirds of the participants described formal club-level approaches to artificial turf. All participants from low-exposure clubs (<50% training and match time on artificial pitches) reported adjusting player recovery strategies following games on artificial turf to mitigate elevated muscle soreness and fatigue. Clubs with artificial surfaces at their home venues were less likely to adapt recovery than clubs with natural turf pitches. Regardless of exposure participants believed switching between surface types was a risk factor for injury. Medics reported that acute injuries associated with artificial turf exposure typically occurred at the foot or ankle, whereas abrasions and overuse injuries were more common and often affected the knees, hips and lower back. Players with compromised joints were less likely to be selected for matches on artificial surfaces. Player management around artificial turf is a focus for staff at professional rugby union clubs. Club practices vary by exposure and may consequently influence injury risk estimates.

Objective sleep patterns and validity of self-reported sleep monitoring across different playing levels in rugby union.

Growing evidence highlights that elite rugby union players experience poor sleep quality and quantity which can be detrimental for performance. This study aimed to i) compare objective sleep measures of rugby union players between age categories over a one week period, and ii) compare self-reported measures of sleep to wristwatch actigraphy as the criterion. Two hundred and fifty-three nights of sleep were recorded from 38 players representing four different age groups (i.e. under 16, under 18, senior academy, elite senior) in a professional rugby union club in the United Kingdom (UK). Linear mixed models and magnitude-based decisions were used for analysis. The analysis of sleep schedules showed that U16 players went to bed and woke up later than their older counterparts (small differences). In general, players obtained seven hours of sleep per night, with trivial or unclear differences between age groups. The validity analysis highlighted a large relationship between objective and subjective sleep measures for bedtime (r = 0.56 [0.48 to 0.63]), and get up time (r = 0.70 [0.63 to 0.75]). A large standardised typical error (1.50 [1.23 to 1.88]) was observed for total sleep time. This study highlights that differences exist in sleep schedules between rugby union players in different age categories that should be considered when planning training. Additionally, self-reported measures overestimated sleep parameters. Coaches should consider these results to optimise sleep habits of their players and should be careful with self-reported sleep measures.

‘We’re not run on Numbers, We’re People, We’re Emotional People’: Exploring the experiences and lived consequences of emerging technologies, organizational surveillance and control among elite professionals

The deployment of digital technologies and data analytics within contemporary organizations are continually seeking to capture vast reams of information to shape employee performance and guide behaviour. However, there is a need to further advance our understanding of the effects and unintended consequences of these technologies within differing organizational contexts. Drawing on the experiences of members connected to a UK-based professional Rugby Union club, we focus on the impact of emerging technologies and ubiquitous surveillance practices in governing employee behaviour, shifting workplace boundaries and providing the ability to resist a mode of organizational control governed by data analytics. Specific emphasis is placed upon exposing the lived consequences and tensions that emerge among employees subjected to an intensive mode of organizational surveillance. In doing so, this study highlights the manner in which emerging technologies and surveillance practices may contribute towards feelings of anxiety, precariousness and performance fatigue among their employees. Through this analysis, we aim to provide a critical understanding of managerial and leadership techniques of control, surveillance and knowledge production that may prove relevant for future research in wider organizational settings shaped by technological transformations and new forms of data-driven management.

A multilevel analysis of implicit and explicit CSR in French and UK professional sport

ABSTRACTResearch question: This paper examines the ways in which French and UK professional sports clubs implement and communicate their CSR policies. In addition to identifying similarities and differences between CSR practices in the two countries, our analysis extends and adapts the implicit-explicit CSR framework to the field of sport.Research methods: We used a mixed methods approach to analyse qualitative and quantitative data on the CSR strategies of 66 professional rugby union (Top 14, Aviva Premiership Rugby) and football (Ligue 1, Premier League) clubs that participated in the 2017–2018 season.Results and findings: We found major differences in CSR communication between France and the UK. Communication by French clubs tends to highlight sport’s values, involve few media channels, whereas communication by UK clubs explicitly vaunts their social responsibility and involves numerous channels. In the case of CSR implementation, there are similarities between French and UK clubs, especially in the fields their CSR initiatives cover (e.g. health, diversity), as well as differences. However, the scope of initiatives varies more between sports than between countries, with football demonstrating a more international outlook than rugby.Implications: This article expands Matten and Moon’s [(2008). ‘Implicit’ and ‘explicit’ CSR: A conceptual framework for a comparative understanding of corporate social responsibility. Academy of Management Review, 33(2), 404–424] implicit-explicit CSR framework by identifying the influence of interactions between sectorial/field-level factors and national/macro-level factors on CSR practices, and by distinguishing between CSR communication and CSR implementation. Our results throw light on the shift from implicit to explicit CSR in French professional sport.

Sports performers' perspectives on facilitating thriving in professional rugby contexts

ObjectivesThe desire and apparent ‘need’ to succeed can drive a win-at-all-costs mentality in individuals who operate in sport. This approach has given rise to environments where the pursuit of high-level performance has been at the expense of athlete welfare. To redress this balance and to inform the creation and maintenance of sporting environments that promote both high performance and athlete well-being, we sought to (i) provide an exploration of the environmental factors that may promote player thriving in professional sport, and (ii) offer suggestions for how key stakeholders can support these mechanisms. DesignA qualitative research methodology underpinned by ontological relativism and epistemological constructionism. MethodSemi-structured interviews were conducted with 18 players from an English professional rugby union club. ResultsThematic analysis generated thirteen factors that players perceived to promote thriving. These factors were underpinned by two general ideas: (i) Establishing Bonds between Teammates and (ii) Establishing a Connection to the Coaching Staff and the Club. ConclusionsThe findings provide the first insight into the type of environment professional rugby players believe can facilitate their development and sporting success. The factors generated in the analysis highlight the players’ desire to operate within an integrated, inclusive, and trusting environment, and a variety of suggestions are forwarded for how this can be achieved. To promote thriving in a professional sport that requires emotion and passion to succeed on the pitch, it appears that rugby union organizations must appeal to the sensitivities and welfare of players off it.

Playing surface and UK professional rugby union injury risk

ABSTRACTArtificial rugby union playing surface installation is increasing. This prospective cohort study aimed to examine the effect of playing surface on match injury types within 157 players of two UK professional rugby union clubs playing 209 matches (96 on artificial surfaces and 113 on grass) over three seasons. There was no difference in overall injury risk between the two playing surfaces with injury incidence on artificial 80.2 (CI 69.9–91.7) and on grass 81.9 per 1000 match-hours (CI 72.2–92.5), with an incidence rate ratio (RR) of 0.98 (CI 0.82–1.17). There was a higher rate of concussion (RR 0.52, CI 0.34 – 0.78) and chest injuries on grass (RR 0.26 CI 0.07, 0.95), and a higher rate of thigh haematoma (RR 2.25, CI 1.05–4.82) foot injuries (RR 4.12, CI 1.10, 15.40) and injury to players being tackled (RR 1.46, CI 1.00, 2.15) on artificial. Whilst there was no higher injury risk for matches played on artificial versus natural grass surfaces, the higher incidence of concussion and chest injury on grass, and the higher rate of foot injuries on artificial surfaces may be related to tackle and footwear-to-surface interface factors.

Strength and Conditioning Coaches' Application of the Session Rating of Perceived Exertion Method of Monitoring within Professional Rugby Union.

Session rating of perceived exertion (session-RPE) is a method of monitoring and managing training loads. The purpose of this study was to research how and for what purpose strength and conditioning (S&C) coaches implement this monitoring method within professional rugby union. The study also aimed to assess if S&C coaches found this monitoring method to be valid and effective. An online survey containing 24 fixed response questions was used to assess how S&C coaches applied the session-RPE method. The survey was piloted with expert researchers and practitioners in the area of session-RPE prior to distribution and alterations were made to the survey based on the experts’ feedback. Twenty S&C coaches working with professional rugby union clubs in Ireland, England, Scotland and Wales completed the survey. The coaches’ responses indicated that the majority found the session-RPE to be a valid and effective monitoring method. While some good implementation practices were identified, not all of the coaches adhered to these guidelines which may impact on the accuracy of the collected data. For example, 30% of coaches do not collect the RPE for every session that a player does per week limiting the use of the session-RPE variables cumulative training load, training monotony, training strain and acute:chronic load ratio. S&C coaches within rugby should consider using session-RPE as a method of monitoring and implement the method in a manner reflective of research findings to enhance the potential applications of this system in maximising adaptations and minimising the risk of injury.

The Effect of Tackler Technique on Head Injury Assessment Risk in Elite Rugby Union.

This study aimed to use match video evidence of tackles in elite-level rugby union to identify tackler proficiency characteristics, for both lower body and upper body tackles, that result in head injury assessments (HIA) for the tackler. A review of international rugby union matches (2013-2017) and Pro 12/European Rugby Champions Cup matches (2014-2017) from a professional rugby union club was conducted. HIA (n = 74) and non-HIA tackles (n = 233) were categorized as either front-on or side-on upper body or lower body tackles and were scored for tackling proficiency characteristics. A chi-square test (P < 0.05) and phi and Cramer's V were calculated to compare HIA and non-HIA tackling proficiency characteristics. In both front- and side-on upper body and lower body tackles, "head up and forward/face up" and "head placement on correct side of ball carrier" were identified as having a lower propensity to result in an HIA for the tackler. For both front-on and side-on upper body tackles, "identify/track ball carrier onto shoulder" and "shortening steps" were identified. In addition, "straight back, centre of gravity forward of support base" and "identify/track ball carrier onto shoulder" were identified for front-on and side-on lower body tackles, respectively. This study identified tackle characteristics that had a lower propensity to result in an HIA for the tackler in both front-on and side-on upper body and lower body tackles.

The Use of Accelerometers to Quantify Collisions and Running Demands of Rugby Union Match-Play

This study examined the relationship between accelerometer metrics and both collisions and running demands during rugby union match-play. Twelve under-18 forwards and 14 under-18 backs were recruited from a professional rugby union club. Six competitive matches were filmed during which players wore micro-technological units (Optimeye S5, Catapult Innovations, Melbourne, Australia). Video footage was analysed for total collisions, while GPS data was analysed for total distance. Accelerometer metrics analysed were Player load™ (PL), Player Load™ 2D (PL2D), and Player Load™ slow (PLslow). A total of 81 player observations were included in the final analysis. Data were analysed using ordinary least squares regression. A 10-fold cross validation analysis was used to validate the findings. All PL variables demonstrated very large relationships with collisions in the forwards, while PLslow demonstrated the largest relationship (large) with collisions in the backs. Therefore, based on the strong relationship in both forwards and backs, PLslow may provide the most useful metric for measuring collision-based activity in both positional groups during match-play. Additionally, nearly perfect and very large relationships were observed between PL and total distance for forwards and backs respectively, suggesting that PL can be successfully used to quantify running demands when other methods are unavailable, for example during indoor training.

Why ‘the best way of learning to coach the game is playing the game’: conceptualising ‘fast-tracked’ high-performance coaching pathways

ABSTRACTAt the beginning of the 2013/2014 season in England and Wales, 90 head coaches of the 92 men's national professional football league clubs and 20 of the 22 men's professional rugby union clubs had tenure as a professional elite player in their respective sports. Moreover, Rynne [(2014). ‘Fast track’ and ‘traditional path’ coaches: Affordances, agency and social capital. Sport, Education and Society, 19, 299–313] has claimed that many former elite athletes are ‘fast-tracked’ through formal accreditation structures into these high-performance coaching roles. The reasons why former elite athletes dominate head coaching roles in professional sports clubs and why a ‘fast-track’ pathway from elite athlete to high-performance coach is supported remain unclear. Thereby the present study sought to address this issue by investigating the basis for ‘fast-tracked’ head coaching appointments. Eight male directors of men's professional football and rugby union clubs in England were interviewed to examine how particular coaching skills and sources of knowledge were valorised. Drawing upon Bourdieu's conceptual framework, the results suggested that head coaching appointments were often based upon the perceived ability of head coaches gaining player ‘respect’. Experiences gained during earlier athletic careers were assumed to provide head coaches with the ability to develop practical sense and an elite sporting habitus commensurate with the requirements of the field of elite sports coaching. This included leadership and practical coaching skills to develop technical and tactical astuteness, from which, ‘respect’ could be quickly gained and maintained. The development of coaching skills was rarely associated with only formal coaching qualifications. The ‘fast-tracking’ of former athletes for high-performance coaching roles was promoted by directors to ensure the perpetuation of specific playing and coaching philosophies. Consequently, this may exclude groups from coaching roles in elite men's sport. The paper concludes by outlining how these findings might imply a disjuncture between the skills promoted during formal coaching qualifications and the expectations club directors have of elite coaches in these sports.

The Effect of Body Mass on the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test in Rugby Union Players.

To evaluate the difference in performance of the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test (30-15IFT) across 4 squads in a professional rugby union club in the UK and consider body mass in the interpretation of the end velocity of the 30-15IFT (VIFT). One hundred fourteen rugby union players completed the 30-15IFT midseason. VIFT demonstrated small and possibly lower (ES = -0.33; 4/29/67) values in the under 16s compared with the under 21s, with further comparisons unclear. With body mass included as a covariate, all differences were moderate to large and very likely to almost certainly lower in the squads with lower body mass, with the exception of comparisons between senior and under-21 squads. The data demonstrate that there appears to be a ceiling to the VIFT attained in rugby union players that does not increase from under-16 to senior level. However, the associated increases in body mass with increased playing level suggest that the ability to perform high-intensity running increases with age, although not translating into greater VIFT due to the detrimental effect of body mass on change of direction. Practitioners should be aware that VIFT is unlikely to improve, but it needs to be monitored during periods where increases in body mass are evident.

Role of sport medicine professionals in addressing psychosocial aspects of sport-injury rehabilitation: professional athletes' views.

Research from the sport medicine professional's (SMP's) perspective indicates that SMPs are often required to address psychosocial aspects of injuries during treatment. However, only a few authors have investigated injured athletes' experiences with these concerns. To explore injured professional athletes' views on the role of SMPs in the psychosocial aspects of sport-injury rehabilitation. Design : Qualitative study. Professional association football and rugby union clubs. Ten professional, male football (n = 4; 40%) and rugby union (n = 6; 60%) players (age = 22.4 ± 3.4 years). Data Collection and Analysis : We collected data using a semistructured interview guide, and the data were then transcribed and analyzed following the interpretative phenomenological analysis guidelines. We peer reviewed and triangulated the established emergent themes to establish trustworthiness. Athletes in our study viewed injuries as "part and parcel" of their sports. Despite normalizing sport injuries, athletes reported frequent feelings of frustration and self-doubt throughout the rehabilitation process. However, athletes' perceived the role of SMPs in injury rehabilitation as addressing physical concerns; any intervention aimed at psychosocial outcomes (eg, motivation, confidence) needed to be subtle and indirect. The SMPs working with injured athletes need to understand the psychosocial principles that underpin athletes' sport-injury processes and the effect psychosocial reactions can have on athletes. Moreover, SMPs must understand the self-regulatory processes that may take place throughout injury rehabilitation and be able to apply psychological principles in natural and subtle ways to aid athletes' self-regulatory abilities.

Muscle pre-activation strategies play a role in modulating Kvert for change of direction manoeuvres: An observational study

The aim of the study presented in this paper was to establish if a relationship existed between lower limb muscle pre-activation strategies and vertical stiffness (Kvert). Participants from a professional rugby union club all performed a multidirectional hopping task on a force platform which measured Kvert. Muscle activity was concurrently measured for the gluteus maximus, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, biceps femoris, semimembranosus, and medial gastrocnemius using electromyography and the activity of those muscles in the 100ms prior to foot contact (pre-activation) was analysed. Moderate to strong positive relationships were typically seen for Kvert and muscle pre-activation for each muscle when normalized to maximum voluntary contraction. Pre-activation cocontraction of the muscles surrounding the knee joint also showed a typically moderate relationship with Kvert and peak muscle activation of antagonist muscles at the knee joint were typically similar. Results suggest that muscle pre-activation strategies play a role in modulating Kvert for change of direction manoeuvre.