Staminate Flower Production Research Articles

Andromonoecy in Solanum lycocarpum A. St. ‐Hil. (Solanaceae): Floral attributes, visitors and variation in sexual expression over time

AbstractSexual expression in andromonoecious species—those in which a single individual can bear both staminate and hermaphroditic flowers—may vary among reproductive events in the same plant, among individuals and across populations. This variation influences, in turn, the individual contribution of hermaphroditic plants via male and female fitness functions (i.e., Lloydʼs phenotypic gender). However, temporal variation in sexual expression in andromonoecious species and its relationship with seasonal changes in climatic conditions remain poorly understood. Here we analyze floral attributes, visitors and variation in sexual expression in three populations of Solanum lycocarpum A. St. ‐Hil. Seasonality in the production of floral types, the mating system and floral visitors were also investigated. Hermaphroditic flowers produced more pollen grains, but the pollen of staminate flowers had higher viability. Only hermaphroditic flowers produced fruits, and ovules in staminate flowers were sterile. Solanum lycocarpum is mainly pollinated by large bees with the ability to vibrate flowers. Phenotypic gender varied throughout the year, and the seasonal production of staminate flowers is associated with the local climate. We suggest that the higher and seasonally variable relative abundance of staminate flowers compared to the low and uniform production of hermaphroditic flowers may be explained by (a) the very high energetic costs incurred in producing large fruits, which in turn make hermaphroditic flower production very costly, and (b) the potentially lower energy expenditure of the smaller staminate flowers with reduced pistils and non‐viable ovules that allow them to rapidly respond to climate variability.

Testing individual inter-annual variations in flower production by means of retrospective analysis of meristem allocation in two tree species

High inter-annual variations in flower and seed production have been frequently reported for wind-pollinated tree species. Such variations have been generally studied from a population perspective. The present study focuses on the meristematic cost of flower production in main branches of Nothofagus obliqua and N. nervosa through a retrospective analysis of flower production over 4–5 consecutive years. In both species, the percentage of flowering nodes in one year varied between 0 and 55 %. In N. obliqua, total flower production was bimodally distributed: years of high and low production were more common than years of intermediate production. Bimodality was not significant either for total flower production in N. nervosa or for each flower type separately in both species. Flower production affected branching negatively, which meant a meristematic cost. Periodicity in flower production was uneven among co-specific trees; more than two consecutive years of high flower production were rare in all trees. Inter-annual variations in the production of staminate and pistillate flowers were synchronized. In N. nervosa, the production of pistillate flowers tended to be more variable among years than the production of staminate flowers. The applied technique helps in the assessment of individual variations of flower production and contributes to understanding factors promoting seed-production variations in tree species at population scale.

Evaluation of Cucurbita pepo germplasm for staminate flower production and adaptation to the frozen food industry

Cucurbita pepo is the most economically important species of the genus Cucurbita (Cucurbitaceae). Its edible-fruited cultivated germplasm has been grouped into eight morphotypes (cultivar-groups) divided between two subspecies: pepo and ovifera. In this work, 93 accessions representative of all morphotypes were grown to investigate their genetic variability and to evaluate their potential for production and suitability of male flowers to be used as an Italian frozen food specialty. Results provid the first indications of a plant ideotype for such use. Principal coordinates analysis (PCoA) with nine SSR markers clearly separated the two subspecies, and yielded information on genetically similar vs distant genotypes to be used for parent choice in breeding programs. Analysis of morphological data allowed identification of seven accessions that met all the criteria for the specialty use of male flowers for the frozen food industry: production of many flowers, corolla length of 6–8cm; and reduced spininess of the foliage. When accessions representing different morphotypes were compared for average male corolla length and average number of male flowers per plant, some accessions of the Pumpkin cultivar-group were observed to be the most suitable for the purpose. Overall, the information collected in the present work is a starting point for exploitation of C. pepo biodiversity in future breeding programs aimed at the production of male flowers for use by the frozen-food industry.

Effects of virus infection on pollen production and pollen performance: Implications for the spread of resistance alleles.

Studies over the past 25 years have shown that environmental stresses adversely affect male function, including pollen production and pollen performance (germination and pollen tube growth rate). Consequently, genetic variation among plants in resistance to a stress has the potential to impact pollen donation to conspecifics and, if deposited onto a stigma, the ability of the pollen to achieve fertilization. We examined the effects of a nonlethal virus epidemic on pollen production and pollen performance in a population of susceptible and resistant (transgenic) wild squash (Cucurbita pepo subsp. texana). We grew 135 susceptible and 45 virus-resistant wild squash plants in each of two 0.4-ha fields, initiated a zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV) epidemic, and recorded staminate and pistillate flower production per plant over the field season and the total number of mature fruit. We also assessed pollen production per flower on ZYMV-infected and non-infected plants and the ability of pollen from flowers on infected and non-infected plants to achieve fertilization under competitive conditions. ZYMV infection reduced flower and fruit production per plant and pollen production per flower. Pollen from infected plants was also less likely to sire a seed under competitive conditions. ZYMV infection adversely impacts the amount of pollen that can be donated to conspecifics, and pollen competition within the styles increases the probability that the ovules are fertilized by pollen from plants that are thriving when challenged by a viral disease.

Developmental plasticity, genetic assimilation, and the evolutionary diversification of sexual expression in Solanum

For over a century, it has been hypothesized that selection can convert an environmentally induced phenotype (i.e., plasticity) into a fixed (constitutively produced) phenotype, a process known as genetic assimilation. While evidence of assimilation is accumulating, the role of plasticity generally and assimilation specifically in evolutionary diversification has rarely been examined from a comparative phylogenetic perspective. • We combined experimental analyses of plasticity with ancestral state reconstructions to examine the evolutionary dynamics of sexual expression in two well-characterized sections (Acanthophora and Lasiocarpa) in Solanum subgenus Leptostemonum. We examined sexual expression phenotypes and the proportion of staminate flowers produced under contrasting resource conditions in 10 species and combined these data with previous studies. • Staminate flower production was phenotypically plastic for nine of 14 species and unaffected by treatment in five species. Two of the nonplastic species bore few staminate flowers, and three constitutively produced large numbers of staminate flowers. For individuals and species producing staminate flowers, these flowers occurred in a distinctive architectural pattern that was qualitatively the same in both plastic and nonplastic species. Parsimony and Bayesian reconstructions demonstrate that plasticity is ancestral among the species studied. • Plasticity has been lost independently in sections Acanthophora and Lasiocarpa, and the consequence of its loss results in evolutionary diversification of sexual expression. In section Acanthophora, loss of plasticity represents a reversion to production of predominantly hermaphroditic flowers. In contrast, the fixed production of staminate flowers in Lasiocarpa has the hallmarks of evolution via genetic assimilation.

Staminate Flower Production and Fusarium Wilt Reaction of Diploid Cultivars Used as Pollenizers for Triploid Watermelon

Several cultivars of nonharvested watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) pollenizers were compared for staminate flower production in field tests and disease reaction to fusarium wilt [Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Niveum (FON)] in both greenhouse and field tests. Differences were observed in staminate flower counts and fusarium wilt reactions in both years of field evaluations and to fusarium wilt among cultivars evaluated in the greenhouse. ‘SP-1’, ‘Sidekick’, and ‘5WDL 6146’ were the cultivars with high staminate flower counts in the field both years. These cultivars also were among the most resistant to fusarium wilt in both years of field tests. Significant correlations occurred between the rankings of the cultivar’s fusarium wilt reactions in both the two field and three greenhouse experiments, indicating a high degree of correlation between field and greenhouse tests.

Major events in the evolution of sexual systems in Apiales: ancestral andromonoecy abandoned

Schlessmann, M.A.: Major events in the evolution of sexual systems in Apiales: ancestral andromonoecy abandoned. — Plant Div. Evol. 128: 233–245. 2010. — ISSN 1869-6155. Andromonoecy is rare in angiosperms as a whole, but it occurs frequently in Apiales. I investigated the evolution of andromonoecy within Apiales by mapping the known diversity of sexual systems on a phylogenetic tree for the order, and using parsimony and likelihood methods to reconstruct ancestral states. I used the results to test the hypotheses that andromonoecy is ancestral for Araliaceae, Apiaceae, and the entire Apiales. My results indicate that 1) the common ancestor of Apiales was dioecious; 2) the first transition from dioecy to a monomorphic sexual system was to hermaphroditism; and 3) andromonoecy was derived independently several times within the Araliaceae and once in the common ancestor of Myodocarpaceae + Apiaceae. Thus, the ancestral andromonoecy hypothesis should be abandoned for Araliaceae, and for the Apiales as a whole. The sequence in which inflorescence structure, dichogamy, and andromonoecy evolved suggests that interfloral dichogamy, rather than resources available for fruit set or inflorescence structure per se, has been the primary factor promoting the evolution of andromonoecy in Apiales. Similarly, intrafloral dichogamy has been the primary factor determining patterns of staminate flower production by individuals of andromonoe cious taxa.

Experimental defoliation affects male but not female reproductive performance of the tropical monoecious plant Croton suberosus (Euphorbiaceae).

Monoecious plants have the capacity to allocate resources separately to male and female functions more easily than hermaphrodites. This can be advantageous against environmental stresses such as leaf herbivory. However, studies showing effects of herbivory on male and female functions and on the interaction with the plant's pollinators are limited, particularly in tropical plants. Here, the effects of experimental defoliation were examined in the monoecious shrub Croton suberosus (Euphorbiaceae), a wasp-pollinated species from a Mexican tropical dry forest. Three defoliation treatments were applied: 0 % (control), 25 % (low) or 75 % (high) of plant leaf area removed. Vegetative (production of new leaves) and reproductive (pistillate and staminate flower production, pollen viability, nectar production, fruit set, and seed set) performance variables, and the abundance and activity of floral visitors were examined. Defoliated plants overcompensated for tissue loss by producing more new leaves than control plants. Production of staminate flowers gradually decreased with increasing defoliation and the floral sex ratio (staminate : pistillate flowers) was drastically reduced in high-defoliation plants. In contrast, female reproductive performance (pistillate flower production, fruit set and seed set) and pollinator visitation and abundance were not impacted by defoliation. The asymmetrical effects of defoliation on male and female traits of C. suberosus may be due to the temporal and spatial flexibility in the allocation of resources deployed by monoecious plants. We posit that this helps to maintain the plant's pollination success in the face of leaf herbivory stress.

Distribution of Staminate and Hermaphrodite Flowers and Fruit-Set in the Canopy of Cashew Genotypes

Production of staminate(S) and hermaphrodite (H) flowers was studied in the north, east, south and west sides of the cashew tree canopy from December 2003 to May 2005 at S.G. College of Agriculture and Research Station, IGKVV, Jagdalpur (C.G.). Flower production was recorded daily on selected plants throughout the main flowering season and, subsequently, yield of each plant was recorded. Results showed differences in number of flower types on different sides of the tree. However, there was consistently greater number of staminate flowers than hermaphrodite flowers during both early and late flowering . Significant variability between genotypes and sides was recorded for sex ratio (S/H). Hybrid-255 showed highest sex ratio for north, south and west sides and Vridhachalam-2 for the east side. Differences in fruit-set and nut-yield were also found between sides. Hybrid 30/1 had highest per cent fruit-set. Highest number of fruits carried to maturity was recorded in Hybrid-30/1. Distribution of yield over the tree-canopy showed that south side had significantly high nut yield, followed by west side.

Maximum Potential Vegetative and Floral Production and Fruit Characteristics of Watermelon Pollenizers

Triploid (seedless) watermelon [Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. and Nak.] pollen is nonviable; thus, diploid (pollenizer) watermelon cultigens are required to supply viable pollen for triploid watermelon fruit set. The objective of this research was to characterize maximum potential vegetative growth, staminate and pistillate flower production over time, and measure exterior and interior fruit characteristics of pollenizer cultigens. Sixteen commercially available and numbered line (hereafter collectively referred to as cultigens) pollenizer and two triploid cultigens were evaluated in 2005 and 2006 at Clayton, NC. Vegetative growth was measured using vine and internode length, and staminate and pistillate flower development was counted weekly. Fruit quality and quantity were determined by measuring individual fruit weights, soluble solids, and rind thickness. Based on vegetative growth, pollenizer cultigens were placed into two distinct groups. Pollenizers, which produced a compact or dwarf plant were ‘Companion’, ‘Sidekick’, ‘TP91’, ‘TPS92’, and ‘WC5108-1216’. Pollenizers having a standard vine length were ‘Jenny’, ‘High Set 11’, ‘Mickylee’, ‘Minipol’, ‘Pinnacle’, ‘Summer Flavor 800’ (‘SF800’), ‘Super Pollenizer 1’ (‘SP1’), and ‘WH6818’. Cultigens with compact growth habit had shorter internodes and vine lengths compared with the cultigens with standard growth habit. Cultigens with the greatest quantity of staminate flower production through the entire season were ‘Sidekick’ and ‘SP1’. The lowest number of staminate flowers was produced by ‘TP91’ and ‘TPS92’. Based on fruit quality characteristics and production, pollenizers currently or possibly marketed for consumption include ‘Mickylee’, ‘SF800’, ‘Minipol’, ‘Jenny’, and ‘Pinnacle’. The remaining cultigens evaluated in this study should be used strictly as pollenizers based on fruit quality. Arrangement of diploid pollenizers in a commercial planting of triploid watermelons is an important consideration depending on plant vegetative development. Based on staminate flower production, cultigens with higher staminate flower production are potentially superior pollenizers and may lead to improved triploid quality and production. Furthermore, pollenizer selection by fruit characteristics should include a rind pattern easily distinguished from triploid fruit in the field.

Influence of leaf herbivory, root herbivory, and pollination on plant performance in Cucurbita moschata

Abstract 1. Plants experience herbivory on many different tissues that can affect reproduction directly by damaging tissues and decreasing resource availability, or indirectly via interactions with other species such as pollinators.2. This study investigated the combined effects of leaf herbivory, root herbivory, and pollination on subsequent damage, pollinator preference, and plant performance in a field experiment using butternut squash (Cucurbita moschata). Leaf and root herbivory were manipulated using adult and larval striped cucumber beetles (Acalymma vittatum F.), a cucurbit specialist.3. Leaf herbivory reduced subsequent pistillate floral damage and powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca fuliginea) infection. In spite of these induced defences, the overall effect of leaf herbivory on plant reproduction was negative. Leaf herbivory reduced staminate flower production, fruit number, and seed weight. In contrast, root herbivory had a minimal impact on plant reproduction.4. Neither leaf nor root herbivory altered pollinator visitation or floral traits, suggesting that reductions in plant performance from herbivory were as a result of direct rather than indirect effects. In addition, no measured aspect of reproduction was pollen limited.5. Our study reveals that although leaf herbivory by the striped cucumber beetle can protect against subsequent damage, this protection was not enough to prevent the negative impacts on plant performance.

Correlated evolution of fruit size and sexual expression in andromonoeciousSolanumsectionsAcanthophoraandLasiocarpa(Solanaceae)

Andromonoecy is hypothesized to evolve as a mechanism enabling plants to independently allocate resources to female and male function. If staminate flower production is a mechanism to regulate allocation to female function (i.e., fruit production), then large-fruited species should be more strongly andromonoecious than smaller-fruited taxa because more resources are required to mature large fruit. We combined phylogenetically independent contrast analyses with extensive phenotypic characterization under common greenhouse conditions to examine the predicted relationship between fruit mass and the strength of andromonoecy among 13 species in Solanum sections Acanthophora and Lasiocarpa. The strength of andromonoecy, defined as the proportion of staminate flowers produced within inflorescences, was significantly and positively associated with fruit mass in both naïve and phylogenetically independent analyses. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that andromonoecy functions as a mechanism to regulate allocation to female function and suggest that the strength of andromonoecy is also associated with resource limitation. In general, we find that strong andromonoecy appears to arise via reductions in hermaphroditic flower number. However, increases in staminate flowers have also contributed to transitions to strong andromonoecy in certain species. Finally, our analyses identified a suite of correlated characters (flower size, ovary width, fruit mass) that are associated with changes in the sexual expression of andromonoecy.

The influence of ethylene perception on sex expression in melon (Cucumis melo L.) as assessed by expression of the mutant ethylene receptor, At-etr1-1, under the control of constitutive and floral targeted promoters

Sexual diversity expressed by Curcurbitaceae species is a primary example of developmental plasticity in plants. Ethylene, which promotes femaleness (carpel development), plays a key role in sex determination. We sought to determine the critical location for ethylene perception in developing floral primodia. The dominant negative Arabidopsis ethylene response mutant gene, etr1-1, was introduced into melon (Cucumis melo L.) plants under control of the constitutive cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter, or floral-targeted Apetela3 (AP3) and Crab’s Claw (CRC) promoters, which in Arabidopsis, promote expression in petal and stamen, and carpel and nectary primordia, respectively. Based on effects of exogenous ethylene, it was predicted that inhibition of ethylene perception by carpel primordia would inhibit carpel development. Constitutive expression of etr1-1 caused several phenotypes associated with ethylene insensitivity, verifying that etr1-1 inhibits ethylene perception in the heterologous melon system. Carpel-bearing bud production was essentially abolished in 35S::etr1-1 melons, providing direct demonstration of the requirement for ethylene perception for carpel development. CRC::etr1-1 plants, however, showed enhanced femaleness as manifested by earlier and increased number of carpel-bearing buds, and production of female (rather than bisexual) buds. Despite increased carpel-bearing bud formation, a greater proportion of the CRC::etr1-1 carpel-bearing buds aborted before anthesis. AP3::etr1-1 plants showed increased maleness by nearly exclusive staminate flower production, and poorly developed carpels in the rare bisexual flowers. These results indicate that ethylene perception by the stamen (or petal) primordia plays a critical role in promoting carpel development at the time of sex determination, while ethylene perception by the carpel is important for maturation of carpel-bearing flowers to anthesis.

Selection through Female Fitness Helps to Explain the Maintenance of Male Flowers

Andromonoecy, the production of both male and hermaphrodite flowers in the same individual, is a widespread phenomenon that occurs in approximately 4,000 species distributed in 33 families. Hypotheses for the evolution of andromonoecy suggest that the production of intermediate proportions of staminate flowers may be favored by selection acting through female components of fitness. Here we used the andromonoecious herb Solanum carolinense to determine the pattern of selection on the production of staminate flowers. A multivariate analysis of selection indicates that selection through female fitness favors the production of staminate flowers in at least one population. We conclude that this counterintuitive benefit of staminate flowers on female fitness highlights the importance of considering female components of fitness in the evolution of andromonoecy, a reproductive system usually interpreted as a "male" strategy.

Selection through Female Fitness Helps to Explain the Maintenance of Male Flowers

Andromonoecy, the production of both male and hermaphrodite flowers in the same individual, is a widespread phenomenon that occurs in approximately 4,000 species distributed in 33 families. Hypotheses for the evolution of andromonoecy suggest that the production of intermediate proportions of staminate flowers may be favored by selection acting through female components of fitness. Here we used the andromonoecious herb Solanum carolinense to determine the pattern of selection on the production of staminate flowers. A multivariate analysis of selection indicates that selection through female fitness favors the production of staminate flowers in at least one population. We conclude that this counterintuitive benefit of staminate flowers on female fitness highlights the importance of considering female components of fitness in the evolution of andromonoecy, a reproductive system usually interpreted as a “male” strategy.

Genotypic Variability in Staminate Flower and Pollen Grain Production of Diploid Watermelons

In 1999 and 2000, a total of 27 diploid watermelon [Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai] cultivars and advanced breeding lines (hereafter referred to as cultigens) were evaluated for staminate flower and pollen grain production to assess their potential to serve as pollenizers (pollen source plants) in triploid watermelon production systems. Male reproductive output (staminate flower and pollen production) was quantified during the peak flowering and fruit setting phase of the cultigens under field conditions. The number of staminate flowers produced per plant per day, number of pollen grains produced per flower, and total number of pollen grains produced per plant per day (staminate flowers per plant × pollen grains produced per flower) differed greatly among cultigens (for all tests, P < 0.01). Staminate flower production by cultigens differed by year (P < 0.0029) and days within years (P = 0.0225), but pollen production between years by cultigens was stable (P = 0.4841). Total male reproductive output ranged from 134,206 pollen grains per plant per day for `Jamboree' to 321,905 pollen grains per plant per day for `Summer Flavor 500'. These studies demonstrate the genotypic variability in watermelon male reproductive output potential, and may assist growers in choosing a good diploid pollenizer for triploid watermelon production.

Genotypic Variability in Staminate Flower and Pollen Grain Production of Diploid Watermelons [Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai

In 1999 and 2000, a total of 28 diploid watermelon cultigens (released cultivars and advanced breeding lines) were evaluated for staminate flower and pollen grain production to assess their potential to serve as pollenizers (pollen source plants) in triploid watermelon production systems. Male reproductive output (staminate flower and pollen production) was quantified during the peak flowering and fruit setting phase of the cultigens under field conditions. The number of staminate flowers produced per plant per day, number of pollen grains produced per flower, and total number of pollen grains produced per plant per day (staminate flowers per plant x pollen grains produced per flower) differed greatly between cultigens (for all tests, P < 0.01). Staminate flower production by cultigens differed by year (P < 0.0003) and days-within-years (P = 0.0094), but pollen production between years by cultigens was stable (P = 0.3845). Total male reproductive output ranged from 134,206 pollen grains per plant per day for `Jamboree' to 321,905 pollen grains per plant per day for `Summer Flavor 500'. These studies demonstrate the genotypic variability in watermelon male reproductive output potential, and may assist growers in selecting an optimal diploid pollenizer for triploid watermelon production.

The role of staminate flowers in the breeding system of Olea europaea (Oleaceae): an andromonoecious, wind-pollinated taxon.

Andromonoecy, as a breeding system, has generated a considerable body of theory in terms of sexual selection, but extended records comparing the performance of pollen grains from staminate versus hermaphrodite flowers are still sparse. The objective in this study was to elucidate the role of staminate flowers in the andromonoecious breeding system of olive (Olea europaea). To determine the meaning of staminate flowers, an evaluation was made of resource allocation to, and phenology of, staminate and hermaphrodite flowers in the cultivar 'Mission', and a comparison was made of the male function between both kinds of flowers. Dry weight of hermaphrodite flowers was 19 % greater than dry weight of staminate flowers arising in comparable positions of the panicle. This difference was mainly due to pistil and petal weight; there were no significant differences in stamen weight. There were no significant differences between staminate and hermaphrodite flowers in either amount of pollen per anther, or pollen quality as determined by pollen viability, germinability or ability to fertilize other flowers. There was no significant link between gender and time of anthesis. However, position of the flower within the panicle correlated with time of anthesis and gender. Flowers at the apex and at primary pedicels tended to be hermaphrodite and open earlier, whereas flowers arising in secondary pedicels were mainly staminate and were commonly the last to reach anthesis. It is proposed that the main advantage provided by production of staminate flowers in olive is to enhance male fitness by increasing pollen output at the whole plant level, although a relict function of attracting pollinators cannot be completely discarded.

Diversification of andromonoecy in Solanum section Lasiocarpa (Solanaceae): the roles of phenotypic plasticity and architecture

Quantitative analyses of sexual expression show extensive interspecific variation in the strength of andromonoecy (proportions of hermaphroditic and staminate flowers) among Solanum species in the monophyletic section Lasiocarpa. The roles of phenotypic plasticity and inter- and intra-inflorescence architecture in the diversification of andromonoecy within this small clade were analyzed. Four species that represent a range of expression of andromonoecy were examined. Staminate flowers produced within inflorescences ranged from 3% (S. candidum) to 7% (S. ferox) in weakly andromonoecious species and from 39% (S. pseudolulo) to 60% (S. quitoense) in more strongly andromonoecious species. Manipulation of fruit set on clonal replicates of multiple genotypes demonstrated variation among species for phenotypic plasticity. The strongly andromonoecious species, S. pseudolulo and S. quitoense, were not plastic and produced a large proportion of staminate flowers regardless of fruiting treatment, whereas S. candidum and S. ferox were phenotypically plastic and produced significantly more staminate flowers in the presence of developing fruit. Staminate flower production of all four species varied both within and among inflorescences. A greater proportion of staminate flowers were produced in distal (later produced) inflorescences. Within inflorescences, hermaphroditic flowers occurred in basal positions, whereas staminate flowers, when produced, occurred more distally. This pattern of staminate flower production is qualitatively the same in all species investigated; however, quantitative variation in the transition from hermaphroditic to staminate flower production within and among inflorescences is associated with variation in the strength of andromonoecy. At least three factors have contributed to the diversification of andromonoecy in section Lasiocarpa including the presence or absence of phenotypic plasticity in response to fruit set, quantitative variation in intra- and inter-inflorescence architectural effects, and total flower production.

The Influence of Fruit on the Regulation of Internal Ethylene Concentrations and Sex Expression inCucurbita texana

Plants with labile sex expression often regulate the production of pistillate and staminate flowers on the basis of developmental and environmental conditions. In many monoecious plant species, developing fruits inhibit pistillate flower production and promote staminate flower production. Because the phytohormone ethylene promotes pistillate flower production in a variety of wild and cultivated plant species, we examined the influence of fruit development on internal ethylene production and their combined effects on sex expression in field‐grown Cucurbita texana (Cucurbitaceae). We compared the sex expression of plants with fruit and without fruit, and we measured internal ethylene concentrations within the hollow internodes of their branches. Plants without fruit had more than twice as many pistillate flowers than plants with fruit. Ethylene was greatest within internodes just below the tips of branches compared with more basal internodes (2–21 internodes from the tip) in both fruiting and fruitless treatments. Ethylene concentrations within branches with fruit were highest 18 d after pollination, just as fruits reached their maximum volume. Branches with two or more developing fruits had the lowest ethylene concentrations, whereas ethylene levels were significantly higher on fruitless branches and one‐fruited branches. Our results indicate that young developing fruits may send a signal that inhibits ethylene production, leading to the promotion of staminate flowers, and that, when fruits are no longer strong resource sinks, ethylene concentrations increase and promote pistillate flower production.