Production Of Porcelain Tiles Research Articles

Effect of Clay as Additive Element in Recycling Waste Porcelain and Sintering Temperature

Porcelain tile production has been consistently growing worldwide at an approximate rate of 300 million m2/year. This implies that there is an increasing demand for porcelain raw materials. The industry's commercial success was due to the constant and continuous increase in both technical and aesthetic performance. Due to the complex nature of its raw materials, vigorous firing process and processing approach, porcelain represent the most intricate ceramic system. This paper studied effect of sintering temperature using recycled porcelain and clay as additive in the production of porcelain on physical and mechanical properties of the new product. Waste porcelain was treated with HCl acid, dried in an oven to remove the moisture content and sieve with 50µm aperture. Clay was added to the treated porcelain powder at 0%, 2%, 4%, 6%, 8% and 10% mixed with a ball mill machine, dry pressed into pallet at 91 MP and sintered at 1100 °C, 1150 °C and 1200 °C for 2 hours soaking time. Physical and mechanical properties such as volume shrinkage, mass loss, bulk density, water absorption and compressive strength as well as microstructural analysis were determined. At a sintering temperature of 1200 °C and clay composition of 2%, the maximum value of compressive strength was 863.15 MPa, indicating the overall maximum. Furthermore, at this composition, the value of the mass loss, shrinkage, bulk density and water absorption of porcelain waste with clay addition was 5.93%, 64%, 2.53% and 6.09%, respectively.

Optimizing raw material composition to increase sustainability in porcelain tile production: A simulation‐based approach

AbstractReducing the environmental impact of porcelain tile production while maintaining cost‐effectiveness is challenging. This work introduced a novel modeling approach for optimizing a standard composition range comprising kaolinite (15–38 wt.%), illite (0–20 wt.%), quartz (20–40 wt.%), and feldspar (20–45 wt.%) to establish a robust composition interval for porcelain stoneware tiles. The proposed study considers several factors, such as composition impact on the manufacturing sequence, production costs, and CO2 emission. A flowsheet simulation database was generated by coupling the Dyssol framework with MATLAB. This study investigated the influence of raw material composition within the process sequence, the total CO2 emissions, and production costs within the contexts of Spain and Brazil, two of the top five global producers. Granules with a higher proportion of talc and illite exhibit reduced moisture content after spray drying, and these combinations have lower green body porosity after compaction. The addition of talc allowed for decreased porosity content after compaction reduced firing temperature, and lowered costs and CO2 emissions despite the higher prices associated with talc. The proposed simulation methodology offers a powerful decision‐making tool for optimizing raw material composition to minimize cost and CO2 emissions in the porcelain tile production. This methodology represents an early stride toward integrating digital twin methodologies within the ceramic tile sector, facilitating improved process regulation, and promoting the adoption of digital technologies.

Statistical analysis of porcelain tiles’ technical properties: full factorial design investigation on oxide ratios and temperature

This study focuses on optimizing the composition and firing temperature of porcelain tiles using statistical analysis techniques. A full factorial design, including model adequacy checking, analysis of variance, Pareto charts, interaction plots, regression model, and response optimizer is employed. The key factors were the Seger ratios of SiO2/Al2O3, Na2O/K2O, MgO/CaO, and firing temperature. The response variables investigated were bulk density, water absorption, linear shrinkage, coefficient of thermal expansion (at 500 °C), and strength. The statistical analysis revealed highly significant results, which were further validated, confirming their reliability for practical use in the production of porcelain tiles. The study demonstrated the effectiveness of utilizing Seger formulas and properties of typical raw materials to accurately predict the final properties of ceramic tiles. By employing SiO2/Al2O3 = 5.2, Na2O/K2O = 1.50, MgO/CaO = 3.0, and firing temperature of 1180 °C, optimized properties, such as maximum strength, maximum bulk density, and minimum water absorption, was achieved with a composite desirability of 0.9821.

The use of rheologically problematic Turkish clays with dry granulation technology in porcelain tile production

The use of rheologically problematic Turkish clays with dry granulation technology in porcelain tile production

Application of Flowsheet Simulation Methodology to Improve Productivity and Sustainability of Porcelain Tile Manufacturing

Porcelain tile manufacturing is an energy-intensive industry that is in dire need of increasing productivity, minimizing costs, and reducing CO2 emissions, while keeping the product quality intact to remain competitive in today’s environment. In this contribution, alternative processing parameters for the porcelain tile production sequence were proposed based on simulation-based process optimization. Flowsheet simulations in the Dyssol framework were used to study the impact of the milling and firing process parameters on the electrical and thermal energy consumption, final product quality, and productivity of the entire processing sequence. For this purpose, a new model of gas flow consumption in the sintering stage was proposed and implemented. During optimization, the primary condition was to maintain the product quality by keeping the final open porosity of the tile within the specified industrial range. The proposed simulation methodology proved to be effective in predicting the influence of the processing parameters on the intermediate and final products of the manufacturing sequence, as well as in estimating the production costs for the Brazilian and Spanish economic conditions. This approach has shown great potential to promote digitalization and establish digital twins in ceramic tile manufacturing for further in-line process control.

The use of foundry waste sand from investment casting in the production of porcelain tiles

In this study, the effects of different types of investment casting waste sand were investigated in porcelain tile production in place of clay and kaolin. Dry and firing shrinkages, water absorption, dry and firing strengths and densities of porcelain tile bodies were determined. In addition, color measurements, XRD analysis and SEM analyses of the relevant samples were also investigated. A1, A2, A3, B and C porcelain tiles had higher density, firing shrinkage and firing strength values. However, they had lower water absorption, dry shrinkage and dry strength values than those of the reference porcelain tile. Quartz, mullite and albite were found in all the bodies as main phases and, in addition, zircon phase was determined in bodies in which waste sand was incorporated.

Chemical modification of porcelain tile surface to optimize flexural strength and Weibull modulus through the ion exchange process

The goal of this research was to improve the ion exchange mechanism in porcelain tiles by modifying the tile surface chemically. Ion exchange, also known as chemical tempering, is a procedure for improving the mechanical qualities of porcelain tiles. So, solutions comprising alkaline and alkaline earth metals with a low ionic radius were sprayed on the surfaces of pressed unfired porcelain tiles (lithium, calcium, and magnesium). Subsequently, the porcelain tiles were sintered at the maximum densification temperature (1200 °C). The ion exchange process was carried out at 480 °C for 25 min in a eutectic mixture of molten salts with 73 wt% KNO3 and 27 wt% Ba(NO3)2. The results show that the flexural strength of the Li+/Mg+2 surface-enriched samples was 75 ± 4 MPa, representing an increase of 32% in relation to non-treated porcelain tiles and an increase of 17% in relation to the chemically tempered samples without prior modification. A significantly larger Weibull modulus (15–20) were found for the chemically modified tiles in comparison with the value for the unmodified porcelain tiles (7–8). These findings demonstrated that chemical modification of the porcelain surface can optimize the ion exchange process, resulting in increased breaking force and, as a result, flexural strength and Young's modulus. This approach can help reduce the thickness of ceramic tiles while maintaining mechanical properties. This would result in lower raw material usage and energy expenditure during production, as well as lower carbon emissions associated with the production of porcelain tiles.

Improving plasticity of kaolins by high-energy milling for use in porcelain tile compositions

The production of porcelain tiles is increasing in Brazil besides the production of grés tiles and monoporosa is decreasing since COVID 19. Plastic clays are used in the composition of porcelain tiles to give plasticity to the pastes in the forming step. However, there is a shortage of plastic clays in south Brazil, the largest producer of porcelain tiles. Therefore, the aim of this work was to improve the plasticity of two commercially available kaolins by high-energy milling (HEM). Both kaolins were characterized before and after milling by X-ray diffraction, particle size, plasticity, and cation exchange capacity techniques. After high-energy milling, the processed kaolins were used in the composition of a commercial porcelain tile paste. The performance of the paste before and after use of the processed kaolins was determined regarding its firing shrinkage and sintering temperature. The porcelain tile compositions with the high-energy milled kaolins showed less densification during pressing and greater shrinkage after firing, but the tiles presented dimendional stability, improving the quality of the tiles.

Boron mining and enrichment waste: A promising raw material for porcelain tile production

AbstractBoron mining and enrichment waste (BW) from boric acid (H3BO3) production is a by‐product of the boron industry. BW exhibits B2O3 contents of 16‐31 wt%, and therefore, could be used to effectively lower the sintering temperature of ceramics without increasing their thermal expansion coefficient. Herein, we introduced 3‐10 wt% of BW to a formulation used for commercial porcelain tile production, and achieved a sintering temperature decrease of 38°C (to 1195°C). The resulting porcelain tiles exhibited a strength of 44.80 MPa and water absorption percentage of 0.01%, and therefore, met TS ISO EN 10545 requirements. Thus, this study paves the way for the use and valorization of BW in the production of porcelain tiles and could inspire the search for other opportunities to utilize BW in ceramic production.

Sintering Behavior and Technological Properties of Low-Temperature Porcelain Tiles Prepared Using a Lithium Ore and Silica Crucible Waste

Porcelain tiles are a building material that has been widely used in recent years and that consumes substantial resources during the sintering process. This study reports on the production of low-temperature porcelain tiles by using low-grade lithium ore (LO) and silica crucible waste (SCW) in a new SiO2–Al2O3–Na2O–K2O–Li2O system. The firing temperature of the porcelain tiles was reduced from 1260 °C to 1070 °C by adding 30% LO instead of feldspar in a modified triaxial ceramic body, and SCW was recycled and used as a raw material. These actions help to reduce the carbon emissions produced during sintering and achieve sustainable development. The effect of phase transitions on the sintering and technological properties of the porcelain tiles was studied by quantitative phase analysis, using X-ray diffraction (XRD). Secondary mullite (0–19%) can be formed at 1040–1100 °C, where more quartz and cristobalite will be retained, which increases the rupture modulus of the porcelain tiles. While the vitreous phase increases rapidly at 1100–1160 °C, the closed pores (0.1–33.1%) will simultaneously expand, causing a decrease in compactness. The results show that low-grade LO (with a cost similar to that of feldspar) allows for the production of porcelain tiles with better process performance at lower temperatures (≤1100 °C).

Microstructure and Residual Stress Effect on the Flexural Strength of Porcelain Tiles Formulated from Locally Available Materials in Uganda

Quartz is an inexpensive raw material used in the production of porcelain tiles. The presence of quartz prevents pyroplastic deformation during sintering. However, the use of quartz particle size exceeding 32 µm has a deleterious effect on the flexural strength of porcelain tiles. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of microstructure and residual stress on the flexural strength of porcelain tiles formulated with different quartz particle sizes, within the range of 45 to 200 µm. The samples made of kaolin, feldspar and quartz were mixed in the ratio of 5:3:2 respectively, and die pressed at 40 MPa. Afterwards, the green body was sintered at 1300 0C for 2 hours at a rate of 60 0C/min. The microstructure of the sintered body was characterized by using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) to examine the nature and size of the pores. In addition, the residual stress was evaluated based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) method and corroborated with SEM. The flexural strength was determined using three points loading method. The samples formulated with quartz particle size of 45 µm exhibited smooth granules, and isolated pores within the range of 3-8 µm. But, those with 200 µm particles size exhibited rough granules, and interconnected pores between 10-34 µm. Initially, there was an increase in the residual stress, but above 90 µm particle size, it decreased due to evolution of cracks. Also, an increase in quartz particle size resulted in a decline in flexural strength from to MPa. These results show that increasing quartz particle size affected the pore morphology and the residual stresses. Therefore, fine quartz particle milling should be taken into account for further improvement of flexural strength.

Porselen Karo Üretimlerinde Konya Kili Kullanımı

Porcelain tiles are the most preferred products in ceramic tiles due to their low water absorption, superior mechanical and aesthetic properties. Ukrainian clays are used in the production of these products because of their low iron content and high plasticity, The Ukrainian clay is an imported raw material and its price increases every year, and so it increases the cost of the production of porcelain tiles. In this respect, the use of local raw materials will provide a significant cost advantage to ceramic companies. In the study, the use of Konya clay instead of Ukrainian clay was investigated in porcelain tile body compositions and the effects on the technical properties of the bodies were determined. For this purpose; Ukrainian clay was gradually removed and Konya clay were added to the standard porcelain tile composition of Usak Ceramic. The developed bodies were fired in Usak Ceramics industrial roller kilns at 1210 ° C for 52 minutes. All physical and optical properties of the bodies were examined. Sintering behaviors were examined by optical dilatometer and thermal expansion coefficients were measured by dilatometer. The phases developed in the body were determined by XRD analysis and microstructure investigations were made by scanning electron microscopy. According to the results, the use of Konya clay instead of Ukrainian clay in the body increases the dry strength values, water absorption and firing shrinkage values ​​of the bodies. As a result, it was determined that the use of Konya clay would be possible with some optimizations in the composition of porcelain tiles.

Use of Experimental Design to Evaluate the Effect of the Incorporation of Quartzite Residues in Ceramic Mass for Porcelain Tile Production

The potential of using quartzite residues in the composition of an industrial ceramic mass for porcelain tile production was investigated through experimental design. Chemical, physical and microstructural analyses were accomplished to understand how the incorporation of quartzite residues affects the material, before and after sintering. Central composite design was used to analyze the effects of firing temperature (1143; 1160; 1200; 1240; 1257oC) and residue content (1.76; 3; 6; 9; 10.24 wt.%) on the physical-mechanical properties of the material, and regression models correlating these factors to the response variables linear shrinkage, water absorption, apparent density and flexural strength were adjusted. Firing temperature had statistically significant effect on the response variables, so that the elevation of its levels contributed to the properties improvement. Residue content presented non-significant effect. In conclusion, specimens containing quartzite residues, up to 10.24 wt.%, sintered at 1240 and 1257oC, fulfil the ISO 13006 requirements for porcelain tiles.

Caracterização das rochas da Formação Estrada Nova como matéria-prima cerâmica no Estado de São Paulo, Brasil

O presente artigo tem como objetivo estudar as características geológicas e tecnológicas das rochas argilosas da Formação Estrada Nova na região sudoeste do Estado de São Paulo, a fim de buscar novas matérias-primas para a indústria de revestimentos cerâmicos. Os estudos desenvolvidos mostraram que as rochas das diversas litofácies da Formação Estrada Nova, essencialmente constituídas por folhelhos e siltitos, quando submetidas à queima na temperatura de 950 °C adquirem características para serem utilizadas na produção de revestimentos porosos e na cerâmica estrutural. Em condições laboratoriais e industriais, nas temperaturas de 1120 e 1040 °C, algumas amostras das litofácies maciça e laminada apresentaram resultados satisfatórios para uso na produção de revestimento cerâmico pelo processo via seca, ou para incorporação na composição de massa para a produção de porcelanatos. As litofácies basais (maciça e laminada) são constituídas por partículas com curvas de frequência de tamanho mais homogêneas, enquanto as litofácies superiores (intercalada e arenosa) apresentam maior variação de tamanho de partículas. A homogeneidade da distribuição de tamanho das partículas encontrada nas amostras da litofácies maciça favoreceu o processo de moagem via seca, facilitando as etapas de densificação do produto. A presença mais elevada do CaCO3 no Membro Teresina em relação ao Membro Serra Alta ocasionou aumento de defeitos e queda na resistência mecânica. Nas amostras da litofácies folhelho síltico laminado (Membro Serra Alta), os altos valores de Perda ao Fogo aliados a baixos valores de CaCO3 evidenciam uma presença elevada de matéria orgânica, que resultou no inchaço dos corpos de prova devida a liberação de gases no seu interior, o que sugere uso destas como argilas expansivas.

Reusing sanitaryware waste products in glazed porcelain tile production

Reusing the waste products generated in ceramic manufacturing is an environmentally responsible and sustainable approach. This study aims to protect natural resources, minimise raw material costs and manage waste-generated pollution by reusing the vitrified sanitaryware waste (VSW) products from Canakkale Kalebodur Seramik San. A. S. Six sample formulations were prepared under industrial conditions and compared with a standard tile body. The results indicated that using VSW in place of feldspar results in an increased firing shrinkage and decreased bending strength, whereas using VSW in place of pegmatite results in an increased bending strength and reduced thermal expansion coefficients. The reduction in the thermal expansion coefficients is an important finding that aids in meeting the dimensional and deformation requirements of porcelain tiles and also results in a slight lightening of the tile colour. This study shows that the fired VSW products can be used in glazed porcelain tile production as a sustainable and technologically, economically and environmentally suitable approach.

Valorization of rice straw waste: production of porcelain tiles

Abstract The rice industry generates huge amounts of rice straw ashes (RSA). This paper presents the results of an experimental research work about the incorporation of RSA waste as a new alternative raw material for production of porcelain tiles. The RSA replaces, partially or completely, the non-plastic raw materials (quartz (feldspathic sand in this research) and feldspar), that together with the clays, constitute the major constituents of formulations of porcelain tiles. A standard industrial composition (0% RSA) and two more compositions in which feldspar and feldspathic sand were replaced with two percentages of RSA (12.5% RSA and 60% RSA) were formulated, keeping the clay content constant. The mixtures were processed, reproducing industrial porcelain tile manufacturing conditions by the dry route and fired at peak temperatures varying from 1140-1260 ºC. The results showed that additions of 12.5% RSA in replacement of feldspar and feldspathic sand allowed producing porcelain tiles that did not display marked changes in processing behaviour, in addition to obtain a microstructure and the typical mineralogical phases of porcelain tile. Thus, an alternative use of an agricultural waste material is proposed, which can be translated into economic and environmental benefits.

Suitability of Tanzanian Kaolin, Quartz and Feldspar as Raw Materials for the Production of Porcelain Tiles

Kaolin and quartz from Pugu; and feldspar from Morogoro were investigated to determine their suitability as raw materials for the production of porcelain tiles. From the mineralogical analysis, kaolin sample was found to contain kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4) and quartz (SiO2); quartz sample was found to contain only quartz mineral silica (SiO2); and feldspar sample was found to contain albite (NaAlSi3O8) and microcline (KAlSi3O8). The major chemical compounds found in kaolin and feldspar were SiO2 and Al2O3, and quartz sample was found to contain SiO2 and SO3. The tiles made from the raw materials and fired between 900 °C and 1200 °C were found to have the water absorption of 12.4 - 13.7%, bulk density of 1.89-1.95 g/cm3, apparent porosity of 24.1-26.0%, linear shrinkage of 0.0-1.7%, compressive strength of 107.4-380.4 kg/cm2 and loss on ignition of 3.6-6.0%. Among the studied compositions and firing temperatures, tiles made from a blend containing 40% kaolin, 45% feldspar and 15% quartz; and fired at 1100 °C were found to have the best properties for the production of porcelain tiles. This is an indication that the Tanzanian kaolin, quartz and feldspar are suitable raw materials for the production of porcelain tiles.

Influence of mineralogical composition of applied ball clays on properties of porcelain tiles

Relations between quality of ball clays applied in raw materials batches for manufacture of porcelain tiles, and physical properties and microstructure of obtained tiles, were investigated. Studied clays constituted 35% of the batch, while the other components were unchangeable. Stoch index, new IR 3620/3700 index and XRIR index (Stoch index multiplied by IR 3620/3700 index), were proposed to take into account crystallinity of kaolinite and contents of illite and smectites in studied clays. Relationship between XRIR index value of clay, and water absorption and abrasion resistance of the obtained ceramic material, was found. Water absorption of the tile is also correlated with grain size distribution and bending strength of used clay. Optimal ball clay for porcelain tile production should exhibit: Stoch index – min. 4.3; IR 3620/3700 index – min. 1.2; XRIR index – min. 4.8; grain size median – max. 0.27μm; bending strength after drying – min. 8.0MPa.

Development of body formulations using colemanite waste in porcelain tile production

Development of body formulations using colemanite waste in porcelain tile production

Effect of the green porous texture on porcelain tile properties

Porcelain tile is a product characterised by low water absorption (usually less than 0.1%) and excellent mechanical properties. To enhance tile aesthetic qualities, much of the porcelain tile production is polished to provide a high-gloss surface finish, in which certain closed pores in the tile body become visible. This apparent porosity of the polished tile, which had been closed porosity before polishing, sometimes lowers the product's stain resistance. Test pieces were formed from a porcelain tile composition prepared under different milling conditions, pressing variables being kept constant, and the pore size distribution of these pieces was determined. The effect of the porous texture of the green pieces on the evolution of porosity during sintering and on the residual porosity of the densified body was analysed. It was verified that the porous texture of the fired piece was conditioned by the porosity and size of the largest pores in the green piece. The effect of residual porosity on stain resistance was determined by two cleaning methods. The presence of large pores in the green body, stemming from insufficient milling of the raw materials mixture, led to tiles with greater residual porosity and worse stain resistance.