Non-timber Forest Products Production Research Articles

The perception of the locals on the impact of climate variability on non-timber forest products in Ghana

All biological products obtained from forests other than timber are considered non-timber forest products (NTFPs). NTFPs production levels in Ghana are affected by climate change. Over the past years, NTFPs have adversely affected by prolonged droughts and short rainfall in Ghana. In rural areas, where NTFP enhance livelihoods for rural dwellers, this adversely affects their food security. This study aimed to determine how rural dwellers in Ghana perceive the impact of annual variability in rainfall and temperature on their non-timber forest products. To better understand how residents perceive climate change's effect on NTFPs, 732 residents were interviewed. Household information and perceptions regarding changes to the availability of NTFP (snails, mushrooms, honey, etc.) were recorded using structured and semi-structured questionnaires. As a result of the sharp rise in temperature and the decline in rainfall, combined with a prolonged drought, there has been a decline in the production levels of NTFPS in the forest areas of the country. The respondents reported a decline in the production levels of honey, snails, and mushrooms, as well as income generated. It is imperative that the Ghana government, through the Ghana forestry commission, educate rural dwellers about the importance of NTFP sustainable use and implement afforestation programs to help regenerate degraded forest areas that threaten some of the organisms required for the production of NTFPs. Embarking on afforestation programs will help improve the climatic conditions supporting the production of NTFPs.

Development of Non-Timber Forest Product Industry in the Context of Trade Globalization: A Case Study in Wuyishan, China

Abstract With the trend of trade globalization, developing countries have an indispensable role in the global value chain. In China, production and trade of forest products appear to be considerably sensitive in balancing industry development and ecological conservation. Simultaneously, increased trade in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has merged as a new direction for sustainable forestry development. This study explores the effect of the NTFP trade globalization process on NTFP producer capital input using a dataset of 976 oolong tea producers in Wuyishan City, China, from 2008 to 2020. We ran pooled- ordinary least square regression and the results show that the trade globalization process of tea products is a driving force in oolong tea producer capital inputs in Wuyishan City, which increases with forest resources and producer scale. Additionally, our findings reveal that the local government implemented a fiscal policy to promote a sustainable composite model (SCM) in tea production, which includes terrace protection, organic fertilizers, tea-broadleaf symbiosis, and ecological water systems. Given structural growth in demand for tea products driven by trade globalization, the SCM promotion policy enhanced the quantity and quality of oolong tea products based on a harmonious coexistence with nature resulting in a mutually beneficial outcome for the government and producers. Study Implications: Results of our study provide evidence that NTFP trade globalization and diversification can promote the NTFP industry by increasing productive capital inputs by producers and innovatively summarize an environmentally benign solution for the adjustment of the production model of NTFPs. The scarcity of forestland and the social uses of forest resources require embedding sustainable governance into the development of the NTFP industry. With government support, the new model of sustainable NTFP production can serve the long-term planning of rational forest resource use.

Habitat suitability mapping for a high-value non-timber forest product: A case study of <i>Rauvolfia serpentina</i>

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are essential for rural livelihoods but are often threatened by deforestation and overexploitation. Rauvolfia serpentina is a critical NTFP species; however, there have been no studies on the impact of future climate change on its potential habitat distribution. We used the Maxent modeling approach to address this knowledge gap and determine this species’ current and future suitability under climate change scenarios. The areas more suitable to its occurrence were mainly located near the southwestern coastal regions of Myanmar and India. Based on our predictions, these ‘very high’ suitability areas are likely to decrease in 2070 under both low and high CO2 emission scenarios, indicating the future vulnerability of this species’ habitat to the impact of climate change. This species is a highly valued NTFP species in the study region; therefore, such a reduction in habitat suitability may result in reductions in NTFP production and economic benefits for the dependent populations. Our findings can help define and conserve areas containing the natural habitats of this high-valued NTFP species.

Quantification of Non-Timber Forest Products utilized by local communities in Nyanjange forest reserve, Morogoro, Tanzania

This study was conducted to assess the types and quantity of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) used by local communities around Nyanganje Forest Reserve (NFR), which is within the Eastern Arc Mountains, Kilombero District, Morogoro, Tanzania. The study involved ecological survey in the same forest whereby sytematic sampling was established along the transect across the entire study forest. The data collected was analyzed by using Microsoft Excel, a computer software tool where the average number of woody plants per hectare was computed using recommended equations. The study identified different NTFPs which are locally utilized in a study area. These include a total of 68 plant and 13 animal species. It was further revealed that, firewood was mostly extracted due to population growth, which relies on the wood-based energy from the forests. It was concluded that NTFPs are useful in day-to-day life of the local communities surrounding NFR. Furthermore, the utilization trend could lead to the reduction of NTFPs available in the forest reserve. It is however, recommended that, for sustainability of the NTFPs in Nyanganje Forest Reserve, the Government should initiate strategic plans for the production of NTFPs in Nyanganje Forest Reserve by planting the open spaces with desirable species. • Different Non-Timber-Forest Products were identified. • A total of 68 plant and 13 animal species were identified. • Firewood was mostly extracted due to population growth. • Open spaces in a study forest should be planted with desirable species.

Survey and Ethnobotanical Investigations of Key Non-Timber Forest Products in Home Gardens and Sacred Forests in Cross River State, Nigeria

A survey and ethnobotanical investigations were done in six Local Government Areas (LGAs), Cross River State, Nigeria, to examine the social and economic value and management practices of the primary Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) in home gardens and sacred forests. The six LGAs were purposively selected based on the vegetation types. The vegetation types include tropical high forest/freshwater swamp mosaic as ecotype 1, tropical high forest as ecotype 2 and tropical high forest/savannah mosaic as ecotype 3 for Akpabuyo and Akamkpa, Ikom and Obubra, and Obudu and Boki. The study was conducted in 12 sacred forests and 60 home gardens in 30 randomly selected communities within the 11six LGAs. A stratified multi-stage random sampling was used with group interviews, personal observation and structured questionnaires as study tools. Also, a simple close traverse was adopted for area determination for home gardens and sacred forests, while the stock survey approach was used for identification, enumeration and measurements of NTFPs/ tree species in the study areas. One thousand and fifty questionnaires were administered to respondents randomly selected from 30 communities in the six LGAs to provide data on NTFPs. Results showed that 69.5% and 61.5% of the respondents were involved in home garden farming and sacred forest conservation, while 64.2% were farmers and only 21% were involved in NTFPs production to supplement farm income. The product contributed significantly to household food security, and the majority of the respondents (62.9%) were women. Volume production in ecotypes 1, 2 and 3 was 18.40, 14.00 and 13.18 m³/ha, respectively. The analysis of variance showed that the number of stem/ha, the dbh (cm), the based area (m²/ha) and the volume (m³/ha) were not significantly different in the three ecotypes. The results also showed that ethnobotanical practices of NTFPs in home gardens and sacred forests have assisted in having proper methods of conservation and sustainable management of the existing forest products. Recommendations were proffered to eradicate or ameliorate the perceived problems. Finally, this study provides relevant information which would be inestimable in promoting and improving improper management of NTFPs in home gardens and sacred forests.

Forest Owners’ Perspectives Concerning Non-Timber Forest Products, Everyman’s Rights, and Organic Certification of Forests in Eastern Finland

Global trends towards the bioeconomy and multidimensional ecosystem-based approaches are transforming our understanding of forests and expanding access to forest management. The demand for non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is increasing due to the current trends in lifestyle and consumption. Forest owners play a key role in the supply of NTFPs. However, many forest owners are not committed to production or aware of the opportunities for production of their forests. Understanding better the family forest owners’ behaviour and decision making regarding NTFPs is needed to strengthen the role of NTFPs in the Finnish bioeconomy. In this study, forest owners’ perspectives concerning NTFPs, Everyman’s Rights, and organic certification of forests were identified. The survey data were collected by emailing the questionnaire to North Karelian forest owners and analysed by creating forest owner typologies based on their forest ownership motives and perspectives concerning NTFPs. Regarding forest ownership motives, four owner groups of relatively equal size were identified and named as recreationist, conservationists, timber producers, and resigning owners leaving the forest property to the next generation. Regarding their use of NTFPs and interest in producing NTFPs four groups of owners were identified: owners who 1) harvested NTFPs for household use or 2) sale, 3) would allow the harvesting of NTFPs not covered by everyman’s right, and 4) need more information on the joint production of timber and NTFPs not covered by Everyman’s Rights. Most owners were household users. The results can be utilised to promote NTFP production and advocate for the more effective organic certification of forests for different forest owner groups.

Cultural ecosystem services from the afforestation of rice terraces and farmland: Emerging services as an alternative to monoculturalization

Conventionally, forests and rice terraces are regarded as separate elements, and their interactions are largely overlooked. Afforestation of rice terraces has been regarded as a “failure” and is almost a taboo among households and policy-makers. We analyze the ecological interactions of afforestation for charcoal making and mushroom (shiitake, Lentinula edodes) production in former rice terraces and other types of farmland in the socio-ecological production/interacted landscape called satoyama, which is characterized by a mosaic distribution of land use. The study counters the argument that the preservation of farmland is the only way to sustain landscapes, biodiversity, and cultural ecosystem services; it contributes to the understanding of the impact of afforestation on the production of traditional non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and the practices of cultural forests.To understand the impact of afforestation, this study focuses on afforestation in the traditional cyclical use of cultural forests (known as satoyama) in Noto and Kunisaki, which are culturally important sites listed among the Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems. This study analyzed quantitative data, which included land use data from aerial photos, ecological data from afforestation sites in Noto, and a survey of shiitake producers in Kunisaki.Despite the conversion of farmland, afforestation in satoyama can take place without diminishing the supply of cultural ecosystem services, facilitating the sustainable development of communities. Afforestation can maintain agricultural output by increasing the production of NTFPs. Afforested areas become educational sites where ecosystem services and the role of forests in satoyama landscapes can be studied. Traditional knowledge of ecosystem service provision and landscape management in forests and NTFP can be shared among tourists and participants in forest restoration. Tourists can explore surrounding cultural sites as the afforestation of cultural forests leads to the development of connections with historical walking paths. Furthermore, afforestation can generate more biodiversity benefits than the abandonment of longtime farmland; for example, the number of plant species increased in former orchards in Noto.Thus, the impact of farmland afforestation in satoyama includes revitalization and the development of new cultural ecosystem services. Afforestation supports a higher level of biodiversity compared to the abandonment of farmland and rice paddies. This study counters the argument for the afforestation of rice paddies and open forests in satoyama and rediscovers the historical exchangeability between forests and farmland as part of traditional knowledge embedded in the cyclical use of cultural forests over a few decades (8–15 years for charcoal, 10–20 for shiitake (Lentinula edodes) production). Managed afforestation of farmland and the integration of traditional forest practice can be a reasonable option for land use management in response to extensive farmland abandonment and continuous rural decline.

Producers, production, marketing, and sales of non-timber forest products in the United States: a review and synthesis

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are derived from natural populations of plants or fungi, or farmed in forests. Harvesters and producers often benefit from NTFPs by selling them to generate income. This article explores research on the producers, production, marketing, and sales of NTFPs in the United States, including the continuum of production from wild-harvesting to forest farming of NTFPs, and their costs and benefits. Specific examples are presented, but the concepts and generalizations are broadly applicable to many NTFPs throughout the U.S. and other parts of the world. Integrating NTFPs into forest management can enhance economic opportunities but also will increase complexity, and will entail balancing multiple and potentially conflicting objectives among a diverse community of stakeholders. We identify information gaps including the need for inventories and yield models of NTFPs, understanding the effect of silvicultural activities on NTFP survival and yield, time series and trends in collection of NTFPs by U.S. households, identification of vulnerable and marginalized communities associated with NTFP harvest, and harvesters’ motivations and drivers.

Livelihood dependency on NTFP's among forest dependent communities: An overview

About 150 to 200 million indigenous or forest dependent communities of over 70 countries, mostly in tropics interact closely with forest especially through Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) to sustain their livelihood, derive their income also their cultural and spiritual identity. NTFPs along with traditional plant based knowledge are deep-rooted among the vast majority of indigenous communities. Reduction in forest cover and land use change has dramatic effect on production and collection of NTFPs worldwide; contributed to climate change and altering ecosystem service. NTFPs have the potential to bring an economic revolution in the lives of the indigenous communities and hold good prospects for upliftment of the forest fringe communities as forests provide 'natural insurance' to these communities. Therefore, exploration and listing of NTFPs with their ethnobiological values are important for knowing and evaluating human plants relationship, potential for their use in day to day life and for proper management. Nationalization of NTFPs may also ensure the welfare of these communities through better remuneration. There exists a huge potential of utilizing traditional ecological knowledge that indigenous communities possess about NTFP resources, their use and management for achieving sustainable NTFP production.

Factor productivity and marketed surplus of non‐timber forest products in Similipal forest of Odisha

AbstractThe article examined the factor productivity and the marketed surplus of non‐timber forest products (NTFPs) in the Smilipal forest of Mayurbhanj district of Odisha, India by using the econometric models. It is found that more than 90% of households earned their livelihood from NTFPs in the study area, where the women's participation is more than the male in the production/collection of NTFPs. Most of the households are illiterate, working‐age people, and have more than 30 years of experience in the production of NTFPs. The production of NTFPs is highly seasonal and households produce or collect NTFPs during the winter season. Households having more family members produce or collect higher quantities of NTFPs than others. The marked surplus of NTFPs depends on the production or collection of NTFPs as well as the retention amount and wastes. The higher factor productivity indicates the NTFPs are the best source of livelihood in this area.

The Effect of China’s New Circular Collective Forest Tenure Reform on Household Non-Timber Forest Product Production in Natural Forest Protection Project Regions

The implementation of China’s natural forest protection project (Protection Project) in 1998 changed households’ forestry production modes in project regions, and China’s new circular collective forest tenure reform (Tenure Reform) has been implemented since 2003 with the goal of motivating household forestry production and increasing household income from forests. Policymakers expect that Tenure Reform could also stimulate households to engage in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) production in Protection Project regions. However, only a few studies have investigated the effect of Tenure Reform on household NTFP production in Protection Project regions. To fill this gap, we built an integrative conceptual framework and estimated a corresponding structural equation model (SEM) using survey data from 932 households in Protection Project regions in southwestern China. In our research framework, there are four factors, including household characteristics, labour and social capital, forestland characteristics, and the Tenure Reform, affecting household NTFP production. The results substantiate that Tenure Reform has had a significant positive effect on household NTFP production. Additionally, household and forestland characteristics have promoted household NTFP production, but quantitatively less than Tenure Reform. This report can be used to inform the government that future investment in Tenure Reform still needs to be enhanced, and policy enforcement still needs to be strengthened.

The (in)visible market of miriti (Mauritia flexuosa L.f.) fruits, the “winter acai”, in Amazonian riverine communities of Abaetetuba, Northern Brazil

While the sale of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is nearly invisible in and marginal to official economic statistics, it is an important source of income for many rural populations in Amazonia. This paper discuss a NTFPs production and marketing chain (Mauritia flexuosa fruits) in Abaetetuba County, Northern Brazil. Research was carried out using the following methods: participant observation, application of semi-structured questionnaires, and by accompanying production during harvest months in 2015. Data show that this channel is made up of many actors, including riverine people (ribeirinhos), middlemen and merchants in Abaetetuba and other regions in Amazonia. Fruits are sold through short distribution channels in Abaetetuba, contributing to up to 80% of all income produced by ribeirinhos during winter months; miriti income ranges from 918.00USD to 2006.00USD per household per harvest depending on the distribution channel used. These values are equivalent to those obtained from acai (Euterpe oleracea) sales obtained by acai producers who employ moderate management levels in Amazonia, a fact that leads ribeirinhos to consider miriti the “winter acai”. The importance of miriti fruit and product sales for households in the study area is striking, and as such, policies to strengthen NTFP value chains are in great demand.

Non-timber Forest Products Governance for Improved Rural Livelihood in Nigeria

Despite the significant contributions of NTFPs to the livelihood of the people there is no clear policy directed at its exploitation in the country. It is considered as minor or secondary forest products. In addition the management of many NTFPs has been neglected over the years by foresters and economic planners. Hence NTFPs have not been developed. Its management has been restricted to the local people and urban poor. It is however important that if the contribution of NTFPs to rural livelihood is to be improved, then access to it and its exploitation needs to be properly understood. It is in view of this that this paper takes a look at the theoretical framework concerning Non- timber Forest Products (NTFPs) governance and its role in improving rural livelihood in Nigeria. It shows that NTFP governance has to do with the process of rule and decision making concerning production and marketing of NTFPs. It ensures equity of access and benefits obtainable from the exploitation of NTFPs. In doing this NTFPs governance help to promote sustainable forest management, protect forest resources from destructive use, promote communal peace, improves income earnings of rural dwellers and promotes increased rural well-being with the aim of helping to preserve the forest and by extension help to support rural livelihoods especially primary livelihoods like farming, hunting and fishing.

Valuing the Potential of Non-timber Forest Products in Financial Valuation of Savannah Formation in Sudanian Region

This study assesses the financial value of one hectare of savannah vegetation in Sudanian region of West Africa based on the potential extraction of Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs). Our methodology provides multiple estimations of NTFPs production from each species for two years and also takes into account variation in NTFPs prices. Given the regeneration capacity of harvested species for some NTFPs such as bark or root, we presented the annual financial value of revenue from NTFPs in contrary to some studies which determined their net present value. Results showed that the Net Annual Value of NTFPs collection is US$368 ha-1 and would justify the interest of sustainable use of these resources. The most valuable products of the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve savannah were species leaves (US$164 ha-1) followed by fruits (US$89 ha-1) and roots (US$78 ha-1). However, the Net Annual Value determined here is the potential value of the Sudanian savannah in NTFPs. The NTFPs financial valuation made in this study provided a useful details for comparing alternative land use practices. In view of the sustainable use of natural resources, a NTFP focused management system could be considered economically viable management option. However, they cannot be sustainability harvested in absence of careful species selection, yield studies, monitoring of regeneration and harvesting adjustments. Therefore, there is a need to know more about useful species availability, biology and reaction to harvesting impact, especially for those exploited for their roots, flowers or fruits.

Inventory of non-timber forest products in Western Nepal and strategies for sustainable management

Non-timber Forest Products (NTFPs) play an important role as traditional source for food, fiber, fodder, and medicine and offer income opportunities for poverty alleviation especially in rural households in Nepal who engage in a widespread trade of NTFPs. Adequate planning for sustainable use of NTFPs is imperative so we explored the inventory of multipurpose trees and herbs that are being used as NTFPs in Chitwan, Nepal. 70 households from Sukranagar and Mangalpur VDCs of Chitwan district were randomly selected and personal interviews were taken with them as well as focus group discussions were done. The community had been utilizing 49 plant species from the nearby community forest. Implementation of the policy of community forestry was found to have a positive impact on the sustainable production of NTFPs. More than 80% of the respondents believed that indigenous knowledge promoted sustainable NTFP production. Kurilo (Asparagus officinalis) was found to be the best NTFP for the study site. Various policy level reforms are proposed that will help in improving the sustainable production of NTFPs. Better utilization of NTFPs as well as their conservation is possible with proper trainings given to community forest users.International Journal of Environment Vol.5(3) 2016, pp.87-103

Recognized but not supported: Assessing the incorporation of non-timber forest products into Mexican forest policy

Although non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are incorporated into forest policy in Mexico, significant problems related to the importance of NTFPs for rural livelihoods, the ecological impacts from their extraction, and their cultural importance, have not been well articulated. This article explores the integration of NTFPs into forest policy discourse in Mexico as a strategy to support livelihood, conservation and cultural goals. Building on the scientific global literature on the subject, we identified 13 prominent NTFP management questions, including the ecological impacts of marketing NTFPs, the distribution of benefits of NTFP production among local populations, and rights of access to NTFP collection. To structure the analysis of Mexican policy we addressed these questions and processed three general dimensions most relevant to policy implementation - these are associated with the oftentimes competing policy goals of supporting rural people's livelihoods, environmental conservation, and strengthening culture (not only of indigenous peoples, but rural people in general). Subsequently we performed an evaluation of key forest policy instruments in Mexico, based on the three dimensions identified, in the effort to learn how successfully forest policy has integrated these dimensions. We conclude that although NTFPs are integrated into Mexican forest policy, drawbacks to their integration remain, related to the diversity in the nature, scale and marketing of these products, as well as to the diversity of local actors involved.

Impact of Climate Change on Tribal Livelihood and Culture

In India, non-timber forest products (NTFPs) provide sustenance to a large number of forest-dependent communities (FDCs), especially tribals, by meeting their domestic as well as economic needs. India and other developing countries have among those most seriously impacted by the consequences of climate change. A study has been conducted in Bastar forest division of Chhattisgarh. The data has been collected by interview from various stakeholders residing in the forest villages such as NTFPs collector, traders, government officials as well as forest department staffs who were involved to implementation of conservation of biodiversity in these villages. Moreover, metrological data (temperature, humidity and rainfall last 20 years) have also been consulted for this study. Climate change impacts are affecting the food, health and economic security of these tribal communities as forest areas go through drought or flood conditions. The study attempted at understanding climate change effect on NTFP-related activities and adaptive measures taken by local tribal communities to cope with climate change challenges. The study also reveals that NTFPs production rate decreases due to declining of rainfall, increasing temperature and other factors. The ecologically sustainable development need must be necessary among the people of the study area.

Impact of human activities on Cross River gorilla Gorilla gorilla diehli habitats in the Mawambi Hills, southwest Cameroon

Most forest habitats in Cameroon support villages whose inhabitants are heavily reliant on the forests for their everyday needs. We assessed the socio-economic status and natural resource use of 3 villages bordering Mawambi Hills, an unprotected forest in southwest Cameroon, home to both the Critically Endangered Cross River gorilla Gorilla gorilla diehli and the Endangered Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee Pan troglodytes ellioti. This forest likely hosts one of the largest sub-populations of Cross River gorillas in Cameroon and is vulnerable to human influence given that it lies in close proximity to surrounding villages and is less hilly than other Cross River gorilla habitats. We show that employment opportunities in surrounding villages are rare, and people rely on agriculture and the collection of non-timber forest products (NTFPs), such as eru Gnetum spp. and bush mango Irvingia spp., for food and income. We also show that areas of heavy human activity coincide spatially with great ape nest sites and raise concerns about the potential impact of human activities on great ape survival at the site. We call for (1) sustainable harvesting and marketing of NTFPs, (2) the introduction of alternative livelihood opportunities (e.g. beekeeping and on-farm production of NTFPs), (3) active wildlife law enforcement to safe- guard the persistence of great apes, and (4) the introduction of a community-based forest manage- ment programme that will enable communities to secure the rights to use and manage surround- ing forest resources legally.

Importance of non-timber forest products in native household economy

Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) have an important role in the household economy of forest fringe dwellers living in the dry-deciduous forests of Purulia, Bankura and West Midnapur districts of West Bengal, India. Due to the lack of agricultural land and industrial activities, forest fringe people collect forest products in regular basis for their livelihoods. They also make some value-added products to have some extra money. It is comparatively easier to calculate the monetary value of NTFPs, which are marketed at the local market or by intermediaries. However, the products which are normally collected for domestic uses carry enough monetary value too, but it never calculated in a proper way. It is very difficult to get a proper information from forest villagers that which product how much each household collect annually as the production of NTFPs vary from one year to another. A relative value can be calculated based on the importance, availability and quantity of these products. Key words: NTFPs, forest fringe dwellers, livelihoods, development, economy.

Assessment of non-timber forest products in Phnom Kok community forest, Cambodia

Our study focused on the potential revenues of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in the Phnom Kok forest community in Cambodia. Questionnaires were administered at the beginning of 2007, and results showed that people collected plant- and animal-based NTFPs seasonally. Plant-based NTFPs collected included fodder, food, medicines, resin, construction materials, and ingredients for cosmetics. Animal-based NTFPs collected included honey and beeswax, live animals, bushmeat, medicines, and hides (skins). NTFPs are important economic and natural resources in community forests, and they are used for both family consumption and commercial trade. Resin products represented the largest source of income, followed by honey and beeswax and live animals. Overexploitation of NTFPs, forest degradation, and anarchic forest clearing through fire pose great threats to the continued production of NTFPs. Therefore, sustainable management techniques must be implemented and harvesting should be regulated. Local residents and leaders need to be educated about the long-term benefits of the forest and NTFPs in preserving the environment.