Production Of Disinfection By-products Research Articles

Progress in Analytical Methods of Halogenated Disinfection By-Products

Ensuring the health and safety of drinking water is crucial for both nations and their citizens. Since the 20th century, the disinfection of drinking water, effectively controlling pathogens in water sources, has become one of the significant advances in public health. However, the disinfectants used in the process, such as chlorine and chlorine dioxide, react with natural organic matter in the water to produce disinfection by-products (DBPs). Most of these DBPs contain chlorine, and if the source water contains bromine or iodine, brominated or iodinated DBPs, collectively referred to as Halogenated disinfection byproducts (X-DBPs), are formed. Numerous studies have found that X-DBPs pose potential risks to human health and the environment, leading to widespread concern. Mass spectrometry has become an important means of discovering new types of X-DBPs. This paper focuses on the study of methods for analyzing X-DBPs in drinking water using mass spectrometry.

Nano-techniques: a tool to prevent disinfection by-product formation in drinking water

Water, a vital component required by all living things, becomes more and more polluted as a result of globalisation and industrialisation. Currently, pathogenic microbes, emerging pollutants, industrial chemicals and waste are polluting all-natural water resources and transportation systems. Therefore, before usage, drinking water has to be treated. When water disinfectants react with the organic natural components found in source waters, they may unintentionally produce disinfection by-products (DBPs), which have a negative impact on the biological system. There is a need for the development of innovative water-treatment solutions since traditional drinking water treatment (DWT) does not reduce emerging contaminants. The main objective of this study is to give an overview of disinfection techniques, DBP generation, health consequences and environmental repercussions. Additionally, there are advancements in nanotechnology that have been made in drinking water system treatment for the prevention of DBP and contaminant removal. Further review describes the analysis of advanced DWT processes that can be employed for the removal and control of precursors and DBPs.

Reactions of Monobromamine and Dibromamine with Phenolic Compounds and Organic Matter: Kinetics and Formation of Bromophenols and Bromoform.

Monobromamine (NH2Br) and dibromamine (NHBr2) produced from reactions of hypobromous acid (HOBr) with ammonia can react with phenolic structures of natural organic matter (NOM) to produce disinfection byproducts such as bromoform (CHBr3). The reactivity of NH2Br was controlled by the reaction of the bromoammonium ion (NH3Br+) with phenolate species, with specific rate constants ranging from 6.32 × 102 for 2,4,6-tribromophenol to 1.22 × 108 M-1 s-1 for phenol. Reactions of NHBr2 with phenol and bromophenols were negligible compared to its self-decomposition; rate constants could be determined only with resorcinol for pH > 7. At pH 8.1-8.2, no formation of CHBr3 was observed from the reaction of NH2Br with phenol while the reaction of NH2Br with resorcinol produced a significant concentration of CHBr3. In contrast to NH2Br, a significant amount of CHBr3 produced with an excess of NHBr2 over phenol was explained by the reactions of HOBr produced from NHBr2 decomposition. A comprehensive kinetic model including the formation and decomposition of bromamines and the reactivity of HOBr and NH2Br with phenolic compounds was developed at pH 8.0-8.3. Furthermore, the kinetic model was used to evaluate the significance of the NH2Br and NHBr2 reactions with the phenolic structures of two NOM isolates.

Adsorption of trichloroacetic acid from drinking water using polyethylene terephthalate waste carbon and periwinkle shells–based chitosan

Abstract Toxins are formed because of massive anthropogenic activities, polluting freshwater bodies. Most disinfectants used in water purification produce disinfection by-products (DBPs) such as trichloroacetic acid (TCA). TCA is a strong acid, and TCA uptake could harm gastrointestinal tract tissues or result in systemic acidosis. Activated carbons were investigated to remove TCA from drinking water in this study. Elemental and Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) and scanning electron microscope methodologies were employed to characterize the surface morphological features of the activated carbons (SEM). Activated carbons’ chemical functional groups were identified through using Fourier transform-infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy technique. Using a UV-vis spectrophotometer, the TCA concentrations in water samples were examined at 530 nm. The levels of TCA in raw and conventionally treated water were 0.9900 and 2.8900 mg/L, respectively. The polyethylene terephthalate activated carbon (PETAC), polyethylene terephthalate modified activated carbon (PETMAC), and commercial activated carbon (CAC) gave mean TCA removal efficiencies of 80.80%, 90.90%, and 90.90% for raw water and 95.16%, 96.13%, and 100% for conventionally treated water, respectively. The reusability efficiencies of PETAC and PETMAC were 78.4% and 82.4%, respectively. The PETAC with R 2 = 0.9377 showed that Langmuir model best fit the TCA adsorption in the isotherm models. According to the findings, PETAC was effective at removing TCA from water sources and could be improved by incorporating chitosan.

A review on disinfection methods for inactivation of waterborne viruses.

Water contamination is a global health problem, and the need for safe water is ever-growing due to the public health implications of unsafe water. Contaminated water could contain pathogenic bacteria, protozoa, and viruses that are implicated in several debilitating human diseases. The prevalence and survival of waterborne viruses differ from bacteria and other waterborne microorganisms. In addition, viruses are responsible for more severe waterborne diseases such as gastroenteritis, myocarditis, and encephalitis among others, hence the need for dedicated attention to viral inactivation. Disinfection is vital to water treatment because it removes pathogens, including viruses. The commonly used methods and techniques of disinfection for viral inactivation in water comprise physical disinfection such as membrane filtration, ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, and conventional chemical processes such as chlorine, monochloramine, chlorine dioxide, and ozone among others. However, the production of disinfection by-products (DBPs) that accompanies chemical methods of disinfection is an issue of great concern due to the increase in the risks of harm to humans, for example, the development of cancer of the bladder and adverse reproductive outcomes. Therefore, this review examines the conventional disinfection approaches alongside emerging disinfection technologies, such as photocatalytic disinfection, cavitation, and electrochemical disinfection. Moreover, the merits, limitations, and log reduction values (LRVs) of the different disinfection methods discussed were compared concerning virus removal efficiency. Future research needs to merge single disinfection techniques into one to achieve improved viral disinfection, and the development of medicinal plant-based materials as disinfectants due to their antimicrobial and safety benefits to avoid toxicity is also highlighted.

Occurrence of dissolved black carbon in source water and disinfection byproducts formation during chlorination

Dissolved black carbon (DBC), the water-soluble component of black carbon, which is formed by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels or biochar, takes up about 10% of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in river water. However, the distribution of DBC in water environment especially in source water is not clear and as an important component of DOM, whether DBC can produce disinfection byproducts (DBPs) like other DOM during disinfection remains unknown. In this study, the DBC concentrations in seventeen source water samples from East China were measured. The concentrations of DBC in the source water samples ranged from 60 to 270 μg/L, which were positively correlated with UV254 absorbance and chemical oxygen demand. The levels of DBC in wet season were higher than that in dry season. The average concentrations of DBC in different types of source water samples followed the order of reservoir > canal > lake > river. DBC could only be removed by 20% during the simulated coagulation, and further generate different categories of DBPs during chlorination, among which the concentrations of haloacetic acids (HAA) were the highest. The results indicated that DBC widely distributes in source water and is an important precursor of HAAs and THMs during chlorination.

A dose optimization method of disinfection units and synergistic effects of combined disinfection in pilot tests

The increasing requirement for reclaimed water has made it necessary to utilize multiple disinfection processes for efficient removal of organoleptic indicators, while guaranteeing microbial safety. However, there is not a proper way to appropriately distribute the operation load between different disinfection units. This study provides a new method to optimize doses of sequential ozonation, ultraviolet (UV) irradiation and chlorine disinfection units, and investigates the synergistic effects of combined disinfection on the basis of pilot tests. In this method, the minimal ozone dose is determined first for the removal of colority. The chlorine dose is then adjusted according to the required residual chlorine. At last, since it has few side effects and relatively low operating costs, UV dose is determined by the remaining requirement of microbial indicator reduction. By this method, the effluent of disinfection could meet the discharge standards of colority, residual chlorine, and microbial indicators. The operating cost was reduced by 48.7%, mainly by lowering the ozone dosage. The production of disinfection by-products (DBPs) was effectively controlled by decreasing the chlorine dosage compared with the original working conditions in the plant. Moreover, ozone pretreatment effectively improved the coliform inactivation efficiency of chlorine, and the combined disinfection method alleviated the tailing phenomenon and achieved a higher maximum log reduction of coliforms. The proposed method can help water reclamation plants reasonably determine operational loads between disinfection units with low cost and guaranteed performance.

Adsorption of humic acid from aqueous solutions onto shellfish ash: Kinetic and isotherm studies and artificial neural network modeling

Background: Natural organic matters such as humic acid react with chlorine and produce disinfection by products such as trihalomethanes that are carcinogenic. In this study, shellfish ash was used as a novel adsorbent for removal of humic acid. Methods: The present study was performed under various laboratory conditions including pH, adsorbent dose, contact time, and initial concentration of humic acid. Residual concentrations of humic acid in the samples were determined by a UV-Vis spectrophotometer at 254 nm wavelength. Artificial neural network (ANN) modeling studies were also performed. Results: Elemental analysis showed that the shellfish ash was 98% pure calcium. It was indicated that the maximum adsorption capacity was achieved in acidic conditions (pH = 3) and pHzpc was found to be 10.3. The adsorption data followed the Langmuir model (R2 > 0.9). The adsorption of humic acid followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic (R2 = 0.999). ANN modeling also provided the accurate prediction of humic acid adsorption for testing data (R2 = 0.989). Conclusion: According to the results, shellfish ash is recommended as an effective biosorbent for removal of organic pollutants such as humic acid. Keywords: Adsorption, Humic substances, Kinetics, Shellfish, Neural network

How the life support system can affect pinniped eye health: a case study with long-nosed fur seal (Arctocephalus forsteri)

Eye health issues have commonly been reported in captive pinnipeds. Excessive exposure to UV light, poor enclosure design features and suboptimal water quality have all been associated with eye pathology in pinnipeds. A long-nosed fur seal Arctocephalus forsteri developed corneal disease shortly after introduction into a new facility. Medical therapies provided some alleviation of symptoms, but long-term sustained improvements in eye health were only achieved after life support system modifications. These modifications centred on lowering the production of disinfection by-products by removing most of the organic matter before applying ozone to the system. The reduction in eye pain following improvements in water quality were also critical for the keepers to be able to train the fur seal to receive eye drops voluntarily.

Comparative removal efficiencies of natural organic matter by conventional drinking water treatment plants in Zimbabwe and South Africa.

Natural organic matter (NOM) influences the quality and treatability of drinking water; therefore, its removal is paramount. A few studies exist on NOM removal in developing countries, and comparative studies are even fewer globally. This study compared the removal efficiencies for bulk NOM and biodegradable organic carbon (BDOC) fractions of drinking water treatment plants in Zimbabwe (Z) and South Africa (S). NOM removal efficiency at the coagulation stage of plant Z and plant S was 11% and 13%, respectively. The fluorescence index (FI) for the raw water feeding plant Z (1.66) indicated a mixture of both microbial and terrestrially derived NOM, whereas for plant S the FI (4.08) showed terrestrially derived NOM. Based on the log-transformed absorbance at the disinfection stage, plant S had a 58% greater opportunity to produce disinfection by-products than plant Z. The BDOC results for plant Z showed humic fractions were the major substrates for bacterial assimilation, whereas the heterotrophic bacteria in plant S were not particularly selective toward DOC fractions. Overall, the plants had comparable NOM removal performances. PRACTITIONER POINTS: NOM removal efficiency at the coagulation stage of plant Z and plant S was 11% and 13%, respectively. Plant Z had a mixture of both microbial and terrestrially derived NOM, whereas plant S had terrestrially derived NOM. Plant S had a 58% greater opportunity to produce disinfection by-products than plant Z. Humic fractions were the major substrates for bacterial assimilation for plant Z, whereas the heterotrophic bacteria in plant S were not selective towards DOC fractions.

Formation of DBPs during chlorination of antibiotics and control with permanganate/bisulfite pretreatment

Abstract Antibiotics are widespread in water and wastewater, which could react with chlorine to produce disinfection byproducts (DBPs) during disinfection process. Activation of permanganate by bisulfite generates a permanganate/bisulfite (PM/BS) ultra-fast oxidation system, which exhibits more complete oxidation of refractory organics than conventional advanced oxidation processes. This study explored the formation and speciation of trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), haloacetonitriles, haloketones and trichloronitromethane during chlorination of antibiotics (chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin and sulfamerazine), as well as the impact of Br - . PM/BS pre-oxidation was further applied to control DBP formation from antibiotics. Only THMs and HAAs were quantifiable. Trichloromethane was dominant in THMs. HAAs derived from ciprofloxacin and sulfamerazine were mostly constituted by monochloroacetic acid, while trichloroacetic acid was dominate in chlorinated chloramphenicol. Sulfamerazine exhibited the highest DBP formation potential (DBPFP), of which trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP) was 997.14 ± 13.96 μg L−1 and haloacetic acid formation potential (HAAFP) was 3767.86 ± 325.09 μg L−1. Chloramphenicol had very low THMFP, but high HAAFP (1560.29 ± 56.55 μg L−1), which was six times higher than that of ciprofloxacin. Adding Br - increased DBPFP and yields of brominated species. PM/BS pre-oxidation (KMnO4/HSO3− was 1.0/2.5 mM/mM) significantly reduced the DBPFP and chlorine reactivity, and inhibited the utilization of bromine into DBPs with the presence of Br - . After PM/BS treatment, over 50% of the ciprofloxacin in real drug manufacturing wastewater were degraded, and the THMFP decreased by about 50%. Overall. PM/BS process is a promising advanced oxidation technology for antibiotic wastewater treatment and control of DBP formation.

Comparative Analysis of Different Disinfection Techniques Performances in Drinking Water Treatment Plant Using a Process Simulation Software Hayder Mohammed Issa

The performance of chlorination disinfection in drinking water treatment is facing challenges with the potentiality to produce disinfection by-products. Seeking safer drinking water quality is related to increasing demands by consumers who are looking for better assurances about the quality of the water they drink. In this study, a water treatment process simulator of WatPro 4.0 was used under certain influent conditions to evaluate possibilities for alternating an existing chlorination disinfection process in a drinking water treatment plant (DWTP-Efraz 2) in March 2014 at Erbil, North Iraq. The evaluation was made in terms of effluent water quality and disinfection by-products formation potentials. The studied disinfection processes are; chlorination, ozonation, and ultraviolet. In the chlorination process simulation, the predicted effluent water quality was verified by the analysis and testing results of the effluent treated water goes out from the plant (Efraz-2). Results showed that each of the studied disinfection processes has its own environmental and limitation pros and cons. Ultraviolet disinfection process meets the required standards of the lowest potential of disinfection by-products. Ozonation included a lower risk than chlorination in the formation of disinfection by-products from the dissolved organic matter. The other parameters of water quality showed close characteristics for all the three disinfection processes. The results obtained in this work gives further insight into the performance of water treatment plant design and encourage the application of water treatment simulators as tools for disinfection process development.

Removal efficiency and mechanism of phycocyanin in water by zero-valent iron

The efficiencies and mechanism of phycocyanin removal from water by zero-valent iron (ZVI) were studied. The trend for dissolved organic nitrogen removal was similar to phycocyanin and the removal efficiency was high at ∼81% and 95%, respectively, in 90 min. The experimental results showed that the phycocyanin removal efficiency was higher at pH < 6, with an almost complete removal. However, only 68% was removed at pH 9. Within 30 min, the removal efficiency of phycocyanin for 1–4 tested cycles was reduced from 55.8% to 15.2%. Scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy were used to analyze the mechanisms of phycocyanin removal, which indicated that a small amount of phycocyanin was immobilized on the ZVI surface by adsorption. In addition, the main removal pathway was coagulation by dissolved iron ions. The Fe oxide formed in situ from ZVI had a higher removal efficiency than that in FeCl3, which can play improved roles in charge neutralization. The production of disinfection byproducts also decreased because of the decrease of precursors.

Quaternary Ammonium Compound Functionalized Activated Carbon Electrode for Capacitive Deionization Disinfection

New water disinfection technologies should be developed because current methods usually produce disinfection by-products and are expensive. Here, we demonstrated the use of a contact-active activated carbon electrode functionalized by quaternary ammonium compound for capacitive deionization disinfection (CDID) at a contaminant concentration of 104 CFU/mL. The effects of cell voltage, flow rate, and ion concentration on the disinfection performance of CDID electrode were investigated. The electrode can kill 99% of Escherichia coli or Pseudomonas aeruginosa (with a concentration of 104 CFU/mL) at a relatively low cell voltage (1.2 V) and a relatively high flow rate (5 mL/min). The damage on cell membranes was proved to be the killing mechanism. Furthermore, the CDID system exhibited high cyclic stability and its kill rate was maintained approximately 90% after five regeneration cycles. Thus, CDID electrode presented in this work has promising application prospect in water disinfection.

Improved DBP elimination from swimming pool water by continuous combined UV and ozone treatment

Chlorine is the most frequently used disinfectant and oxidant for maintaining swimming pool water quality; however, it reacts continuously with dissolved organic matter to produce disinfection by-products (DBPs), which are a health risk for pool users. UV treatment is used widely to remove chloramines, which are the most prevalent group of DBPs, albeit chloro-organic DBP concentrations often increase during post-UV chlorination.In this work, UV and ozone treatments were investigated as additional technologies to eliminate DBP formation and their precursors. Batch experiments were conducted under controlled conditions, using realistic UV and ozone dosages and real pool water samples collected from a public swimming pool.A gradual increase in all investigated DBP concentrations and predicted toxicity was observed during chlorination after repeated UV treatments, and concentrations of certain DBPs also increased during post-ozone chlorination. Based on ozone and chlorine's similar reactivity, ozone was used directly after UV treatment to decrease the induction of DBP formation. Most DBP concentrations decreased during repeated combined treatments. It was also observed that DBP formed by post-ozone chlorination was removed by photolysis, thereby indicating synergy between the treatments. Repeated treatments using realistic UV and ozone dosages predicted that water quality will improve as a result of continuous combined UV and ozone treatments.

Differential absorbance as evaluation method of TOX concentrations generated during surface water chlorination

Chlorination of waters containing natural organic matter (NOM) produces disinfection by-products (DBPs) including harmful THMs and HAAs. A collective parameter and toxicity index of all chlorination products contained in finished water is the total concentration of organic-bound halogen compounds (TOX). Determination of this indicator is carried out by adsorption-pyrolysis method, which is complicated and requires specialized apparatus. The competitive method of TOX concentration determination in water is differential absorbance. Effect of natural organic matter removal from surface waters in coagulation as well in coagulation and adsorption processes on the decrease of TOX concentration measured by differential absorbance was determined.

The effects of chemical additives on the production of disinfection byproducts and ecotoxicity in simulated ballast water

The management of ship ballast water is essential to stemming the introduction of non-indigenous species. Approval for onboard installation of a system to treat ballast water requires rigorous land-based testing as dictated in the G8 guideline by the International Maritime Organization. However, this testing lacks standardization—most notably augmentation of organic carbon for influent water by adding chemical additives. Electrochlorination is a popular treatment method for ballast water, in which chlorinated oxidants react with organisms and organic matter in water. The additives could thus affect the treatment efficacy of the ballast water. Here, we examined the effects of several candidates of organic carbon additives on the consumption of total residual oxidant (TRO), the production of disinfection byproducts (DBPs), plankton survival, and ecotoxicity. The TRO consumption over five days of storage was higher in electrochlorinated seawater amended with lignin and Metamucil when compared with seawaters with other organic carbon compounds. DBP production varied by almost two orders of magnitude as a function of the various additives. This was largely attributed to the production of tribromomethane and dibromoacetic acid. The survival of Artemia franciscana was significantly different across waters of different organic carbon additives. Algal toxicity testing with the marine haptophyte Isochrysis galbana significantly reduced growth in lignin- and Metamucil-treated seawaters, but not with other organic carbon compounds. Bioluminescence in Vibrio fischeri sharply declined in electrochlorinated seawaters with all types of organic carbon compounds, but no toxicity was manifested once the electrochlorinated seawaters were neutralized with sodium thiosulfate. The varying degrees of outcome suggest that it might be better to eliminate the requirements of adding organic carbon to test water as long as natural water was used for land-based testing of BWMS. If needed, the additives could be used in proportion to the composition of the organic matter in water being tested.

Dynamics of dissolved organic matter in riverine sediments affected by weir impoundments: Production, benthic flux, and environmental implications

In order to understand the characteristics and dynamics of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in the sediment of rivers affected by impoundments, we examined the vertical profiles and the benthic fluxes of DOM in four different core sediments located at upstream sites of weirs in major rivers of South Korea. In three out of four sites, exponential accumulation of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) with depth was observed with the signature of seasonal variability. Except for the site displaying a below-detection limit of Fe(II), the general accumulation trends of DOC with depth was concurrent with the increases of Fe(II) and NH4+ and the decrease of PO43-, signifying a close linkage of the DOM dynamics with anaerobic respiration via iron reduction, an important early diagenesis pathway. The estimated benthic fluxes from the cores revealed that the sediments likely serve as DOC, chromophoric DOM (CDOM), and fluorescent DOM (FDOM) sources to the overlying water. The benthic effluxes based on DOC were comparable to the ranges previously reported in lake and coastal areas, and those of CDOM and FDOM showed even higher levels. These findings imply that impoundment-affected river systems would change the DOM composition of the overlying water, ultimately influencing the subsequent water treatment processes such as disinfection byproducts production and membrane fouling. A simple mass balance model indicated that the impoundment-affected river sediments may operate as a net carbon sink in the environments due to a greater extent of sedimentation compared to the estimated benthic efflux and sediment biological respiration.

Formation of bromate during ferrate(VI) oxidation of bromide in water

Ferrate (VI) is traditionally recognized as a safe oxidant without production of disinfection byproducts (DBPs). However, here we detected probable carcinogenic bromate (BrO3−) during ferrate(VI) oxidation of bromide (Br−)-containing water, and evaluated the effects of pH, ferrate(VI) dose, initial Br− concentration, and co-existing anions on the BrO3− formation. BrO3− was produced at a moderately–weakly acidic pH condition and in the absence of phosphate that was commonly applied as a buffer and stabilizing agent in previous ferrate(VI) studies. At pH 5.0, the produced BrO3− was increased from 12.5 to 273.8 μg/L with the increasing initial Br− concentration from 200 to 1000 μg/L at 10 mg/L Fe(VI), corresponding to an increase in the molar conversion ([BrO3−]/initial [Br−]) from 2.3% to 10.3%, in a bicarbonate-buffered solution. As pH increased to 7.0, the BrO3− concentration gradually dropped. The BrO3− production appeared to be associated with the oxidation by high valence iron species (i.e. Fe(VI), Fe(V) and Fe(IV)). Two key intermediate products (i.e. hypobromous acid/hypobromite (HOBr/OBr−) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)) relevant to the bromate formation were identified. The production of HOBr, a requisite intermediate for the ensuing bromate formation, was indirectly validated through identification of bromine-containing trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids during ferrate oxidation in a natural water, though these bromo-organic DBPs produced were insignificant. Furthermore, the inhibition effects of various anions on the formation of BrO3− followed chloride < sulfate < silicate < phosphate. More H2O2 was detected at higher phosphate concentration. It could reduce HOBr to Br−, thereby inhibiting the bromate formation.

Humic Acid Degradation by ZnO Photocatalyst

Humic acid (HA) is universally present in soils and natural water resources in a yellow-brown form. HA can react with chlorine during drinking water treatment and produce disinfection byproducts (DBPs), such as trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), which are harmful for health. Therefore, HA has to be eliminated from water environment. The photocatalysis is an effective alternative solution for the degradation of HA in a water environment. This research aims to degrade HA from water environment. The rapid degradation of HA, using zinc oxide nanoparticles, irradiated by ultraviolet light (ZnO/UV), is investigated. The optimum conditions of pertinent factors, which include the light wavelength (UV-A and UV-C), and light intensity, HA concentration, ZnO dose, and contact time are investigated at neutral pH conditions, considered for drinking water treatment. HA degradation efficiency reached more than 80% after 60 min for both types of irradiation in optimum conditions of 0.3 g/L ZnO dose in 180 min of contact time. Comparisons for degradation efficiency under UV-A and UV-C irradiation indicate that UV-C has higher efficiency, up to 150 min of contact time. The reusability of catalyst is performed for three reuses and still revealed effective for beneficial commercial applications.