Biomass Procurement Research Articles

Post-harvest regeneration is driven by ecological factors rather than wood procurement intensity in eastern Canadian forests

Abstract Biomass from surplus forest growth that is not harvested for wood supply of conventional industries can be an important source of feedstock for bioenergy. Its procurement can be integrated with little effort into current harvest operations. However, the increasing harvesting intensity to meet greater demand for biomass procurement can impact forest ecosystem functions because of its direct and indirect effects on woody debris and the regeneration of next-rotation stands. In this context, we aimed to determine the relationships between wood procurement intensity, woody debris inputs, and regeneration success over 2 years after harvesting. We tested four treatments of increasing wood procurement intensity using a randomized block design within six experimental sites along a gradient of varying forest characteristics of boreal and temperate forests. We assessed stand characteristics in terms of standing trees, woody debris, and regeneration pre- and post-harvest. We used mixed effects models to evaluate (i) the effects of wood procurement intensity and pre-harvest stand characteristics on the volume and cover of woody debris and (ii) the specific influence of woody debris on the presence of suitable planting microsites post-harvest. Furthermore, we used principal component regressions to explore the relationships between harvesting intensity and the presence of natural regeneration and competing vegetation as a function of pre- and post-harvest stand characteristics (iii). Our results showed that increasing wood procurement intensity reduced the volume of post-harvest woody debris while having a limited effect on regeneration. Increasing harvesting intensity had a negligible effect on suitable planting microsites in hardwood-dominated stands but it increased their presence in conifer-dominated stands. Natural regeneration and competing vegetation were mainly related to stand characteristics, and only broadleaf regeneration was sensitive to harvest intensity. We conclude that the relationships between wood procurement intensity and regeneration are complex and rely mainly on stand characteristics rather than wood procurement needs.

The effects of the EU’s forest-related policies on harvesting costs in Finland

The EU’s influence on national forest policies is growing, and the implementation of forest-related policies proposed by the Commission will affect the practice of forestry in Europe. For instance, the Nature Restoration Law sets concrete areal goals for restoring forest ecosystems and for conservation, the Deforestation Regulation requires meticulous tracking of wood’s origin, and the renewed Renewable Energy Directive (RED III) sets new criteria to sustainable forest biomass procurement. So far there have been no studies that have looked into the impacts from the economic and operational point of view. In this study, structural systems analysis was first performed to discover the relevant variables (and their functioning) associated with the roundwood harvesting operations and the operating environment. A scenario approach was then applied to capture the potential levels of implementation of the EU’s forest-related policies. Finally, using different scenarios (low-, moderate- and high-impact) and a systems analysis framework, the impact of alternative levels of implementation was quantified in terms of harvesting costs, measured in € m–3. The results indicate that with the low- and moderate-impact scenarios the harvesting costs would increase by less than 10% from the current levels in three different regions in Finland. Such an increase (less than 10%) could be tolerated over a period of a few years, but a sudden increase is likely to lead to challenges to the running of businesses. With the high-impact scenario the harvesting costs would increase by between 15% and 18%, depending on the region. This magnitude of increase (of approximately a sixth) corresponds to a severe change in the roundwood harvesting operations and operating environment.

Proportion of Nonindustrial Private Forest Lands That Potentially Can Be Leased to Bioenergy Enterprises to Grow Short Rotation Woody Crops

Abstract Determining how much nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) land could potentially be allocated to growing short rotation woody crops (SRWCs) is critical for estimating the future supply of woody biomass for biofuels and overall bioenergy production. This study estimated the proportion of the land NIPF landowners would be willing to allocate to SRWC cultivation. In view of the bounded nature of the dependent binary variable [0,1] and model performance, a fractional logit regression model was used to estimate model parameters. The estimated proportion of land allocated to SRWCs was positively influenced by the rental rate per acre, owning land for investment or fee-access hunting purposes, and the landowner’s age. In contrast, size of the ownership, owning land for the production of agricultural products, and residing on the land negatively influenced the proportion of land allocated to SRWCs. Lease contract duration, location of the largest tract owned, owning land for personal recreation or ecosystem services, and landowner familiarity with the concept of alternative fuels production did not influence the proportion of land allocated to SRWCs. These results will contribute to a better understanding of SRWC biomass supply from NIPF land and provide important benchmark information for conducting feasibility analyses of biofuel and biopower manufacturing in Mississippi and other states with abundant woody feedstocks. Study Implications: To achieve targeted levels of bioenergy production and carbon dioxide (CO2) emission reductions and diversify NIPF landowner income, participation of NIPF landowners in woody biomass feedstock production will be critical, because they own a majority of forestland in the region. Moreover, they have diverse reasons for owning land which has extensive implications not only in terms of incentive types or monetary compensation levels they might require for cultivating SRWCs but also policies related to the development of the bioenergy sector in Mississippi, the location of individual bioenergy processing facilities, and feedstock types that will be developed. Thus, forest managers and biomass procurement foresters might need to decide whether to focus their efforts on maximizing the land area allocated to growing SRWCs or considering a mix of SRWCs at lower lease rates per acre and material obtained from thinnings, which might be more amenable to landowners who value environmental amenities.

A review on the sustainable procurement of microalgal biomass from wastewaters for the production of biofuels

The feasibility of microalgal biomass as one of the most promising and renewable sources for the production of biofuels is being studied extensively. Microalgal biomass can be cultivated under photoautotrophic, heterotrophic, photoheterotrophic, and mixotrophic cultivation conditions. Photoautotrophic cultivation is the most common way of microalgal biomass production. Under mixotrophic cultivation, microalgae can utilize both organic carbon and CO2 simultaneously. Mixotrophic cultivation depicts higher biomass productivity as compared to photoautotrophic cultivation. It is evident from the literature that mixotrophic cultivation yields higher quantities of polyunsaturated fatty acids as compared to that photoautotrophic cultivation. In this context, for economical biomass production, the organic carbon of industrial wastewaters can be valorized for the mixotrophic cultivation of microalgae. Following the way, contaminants’ load of wastewaters can be reduced while concomitantly producing highly productive microalgal biomass. This review focuses on different aspects covering the sustainable cultivation of different microalgal species in different types of wastewaters.

Industrial End-Users’ Preferred Characteristics for Wood Biomass Feedstocks

The use of sustainably sourced biomass is an important tool for mitigating the effects of climate change; but biomass is far from being a homogeneous resource. The aim of this study was to examine the decision-making process of industrial end-users considering biomass procurement. An online, two-part survey generated responses from 27 experienced professionals, representing a portfolio of facilities varying in size, technology, and biomass types, across Australia, Canada, Finland, and Sweden. A PAPRIKA conjoint analysis approach was used to analyze the data so that the attributes that influenced procurement decisions could be weighted and ranked. The results provided an insight into end-users’ views on factors including facility location, size, and biomass storage, handling, and procurement for different wood-based industrial services. The most important decision-making attribute appeared to be the type of biomass assortment, at individual, national, and aggregated levels. Of seven sub-categories of biomass assortments, sawdust (35%) was the most preferred type followed by stem wood chips (20%) and energy wood (15%). We concluded that, from the end-user’s perspective, a pre-defined biomass assortment is the most important factor when deciding on feedstock procurement at a bioenergy facility. These results help us better understand end-users’ perceptions of biomass properties in relation to their conversion processes and supply preferences and can inform product development and the securement of new niches in alternative business environments by existing and future biohubs.

An empirical financial analysis of integrating biomass procurement in sawtimber and pulpwood harvesting in eastern Canada

Integrating forest biomass procurement in wood procurement for conventional products is a potential means of reducing bioenergy system supply costs. We studied forest harvest operations to procure biomass in the form of trees and tree sections, along with sawtimber and pulpwood. We evaluated the cost-effectiveness of the supply chain with a particular focus on harvest costs and the potential silvicultural savings from a reduced need for site preparation and reforestation. We compared four wood procurement scenarios of increasing intensity (from harvesting only sawtimber to harvesting sawtimber, pulpwood and biomass for bioenergy) at three sites in eastern Canada. Wood procurement intensity did not affect feedstock unit costs (CAD·m−3). At the stand scale, procuring biomass for bioenergy had limited impact on harvest costs (CAD·ha−1) for low-density stands with large trees. In contrast, high-density stands with small trees generated more feedstock for bioenergy (up to 50 m3·ha−1), but biomass procurement increased harvest costs. The cost-effectiveness of the wood supply chain did not vary significantly along the wood procurement intensity gradient we studied when silvicultural savings are considered. The proportion of biomass harvested, stand characteristics, and market conditions proved to be important factors that influence wood procurement profitability.

Biomass procurement in boreal forests affected by spruce budworm: effects on regeneration, costs, and carbon balance

Biomass procured from forests affected by natural disturbances as a bioenergy source is increasingly considered in the context of climate change mitigation. By comparing clearcuts with and without biomass procurement, we aimed to determine the effects of biomass extraction performed alongside lumber harvesting on regeneration density, number of planting microsites, forest renewal costs, and carbon fluxes, in harvested boreal stands affected by spruce budworm. The results showed that biomass procurement increased regeneration density and number of planting microsites. Reduction of downed woody debris due to biomass procurement lowered site preparation costs by 282.07 $CAN·ha−1, equivalent to 14.45 $CAN per oven-dry metric ton (odmt−1) of harvested biomass. Product value from biomass processing had to reach from 13.90 to 76.84 $CAN·odmt−1 to make biomass procurement operations profitable. Since biomass procurement significantly increased stocking and reduced the amount of decaying debris, it also reduced cumulative CO2 emissions relative to scenarios without biomass procurement. However, ensuring forest renewal through site preparation and plantation per se, irrespective of biomass procurement, played a more important role for carbon sequestration and net balance. Integrating biomass harvesting with silviculture could have significant ecological and financial impacts on forest management while supporting mitigation efforts against climate change.

Sustainability driven design of lignocellulosic ethanol system highlighting importance of water footprint

This work performs integrated multi-objective optimization of lignocellulosic biorefinery system considering four objectives capturing the three dimensions of sustainability, namely, cost, life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and life cycle water footprint of ethanol and employment generation. Feedstock selection, biorefinery location and size, biorefinery conversion processes, and detailed biomass procurement and processing strategy are the decision variables. The model was applied to a case study of Maharashtra, India, considering 33 districts and five different feedstock to produce ethanol to meet the 10% gasoline blending target. The optimal values for ethanol cost, GHG emission, and water footprint were Rs. 50.39/l ($ 0.69/l), 0.933 kg CO2 eq./l and 0.271 m3/l, respectively, while a total of 5087 jobs were created in the biorefineries for job maximization. Feedstock selection, biorefinery number and their locations affected the objectives. Multi-objective optimization identified design possibilities with considerable reduction in water footprint at nominal increase in the cost and GHG emissions. The sensitivity of the model with respect to the ethanol demand, biomass availability, and cost of cotton stalk was studied. A reduction in biomass availability to 20% had minimal impact on minimal GHG emissions, but the minimum cost increased by 21% while the minimum water footprint increased by 81%. Sensitivity analysis based on cost of cotton stalk showed that it was a much more important feedstock from the economic perspective than from GHG emissions and water footprint perspectives. The results provide region-specific recommendations for scaling of lignocellulosic biofuel systems.

Optimal multi-state partnerships for woody biomass co-firing incorporating a demand-response function for biomass procurement

Optimal multi-state partnerships for woody biomass co-firing incorporating a demand-response function for biomass procurement

Degraded Trees from Spruce Budworm Epidemics as Bioenergy Feedstock: A Profitability Analysis of Forest Operations

Natural disturbances are common in Canadian boreal managed forests. For example, during and after insect epidemics, foresters must deal with significant amounts of degraded or dead wood that cannot be processed into sawn timber or pulp. Bioenergy could be an alternative pathway for this wood. A case study in Quebec (Canada) was used to evaluate the profitability of pellet production for bioenergy using degraded trees from insect epidemics. A bioenergy scenario was simulated in which degraded trees were harvested for bioenergy alongside sound wood for timber and pulp. This scenario was compared to a reference scenario in which degraded trees were left on cutovers. Using wood pellets as a case study, the results showed that at current market prices, harvesting degraded trees for pellet production is not as profitable as leaving them in the forest. Nevertheless, the overall forest operations for procuring wood for timber and pulp were still profitable, even with very high degradation levels. Procuring degraded trees reduced the overall fixed costs per harvested m3 and allowed average savings of C$2.83/harvested m3. The silvicultural savings associated with lower site preparation needs following procurement of degraded trees ranged from C$0/ha to C$500/ha, resulting in average savings of C$2.31/harvested m3. Depending on the stand conditions, the distribution of fixed costs and silvicultural savings of biomass procurement could be either low or significant.

Biomass Procurement in Boreal Forests Affected by Spruce Budworm: Effects on Regeneration, Costs and Carbon Balance

Biomass Procurement in Boreal Forests Affected by Spruce Budworm: Effects on Regeneration, Costs and Carbon Balance

Opportunity cost of several methods for determining forest biomass terminal locations in Northern Sweden

ABSTRACTLong distance transportation of forest biomass is often unavoidable because the biomass is dispersed over large land areas. This is a problem that limits the development of biorefineries all over the world. The use of biomass terminals where forest biomass is transported to, stored, processed (mostly by mobile machinery), and reloaded can facilitate more environmentally friendly and efficient transportation to a biorefinery. The challenge is to identify the locations that should be selected for terminal establishment in order to minimize the cost of biomass procurement. In this study, locations for terminal establishment are proposed based on an optimization method (Combopt) that simultaneously minimizes the harvesting, transportation, and terminal costs for round wood and logging residues. The outcome of this method was compared with several other methods imitating situations with limited knowledge to estimate potential opportunity costs of potential knowledge deficiency when selecting terminal locations. The results of the Combopt method suggest that six terminals are required in order to minimize the overall cost of satisfying the estimated demand from the biorefineries. The opportunity cost of alternative terminal selection methods ranged from 3.1 to 35.4 million SEK (0.5–6.1% of total procurement cost). Methods that considered biomass relatively close to terminals had lower opportunity costs, together with methods minimizing transportation and terminal cost for the most common wood assortment. The methods and results could be applicable in other parts of the world were similar problems exists in forestry and other industries.

Modeling biomass procurement tradeoffs within a cellulosic biofuel cost model

We develop a long-run cellulosic biofuel cost model that minimizes feedstock procurement and processing costs per gallon. The distinguishing feature of the model is that it accounts for the procurement tradeoff between the intensive margin (biomass producers' participation rate) and extensive margin (biomass capture region). To investigate the extent to which this procurement tradeoff affects processors' cost-minimizing decisions, we apply the model to switchgrass ethanol production in U.S. crop reporting districts. Results suggest that location characteristics will determine the extent to which processors can reduce their total procurement costs by offering a higher biomass price to increase participation near the plant and reduce transportation costs.

Regional economic impacts of biomass district heating in rural New York

Although the economic benefits of biomass heating in rural regions have been widely asserted, few studies have conducted a thorough economic impact analysis within the United States. This study proposes biomass district heating (BDH) as a means to stimulate the rural economy of the Tug Hill region of New York State by establishing a local industry and providing lower cost heat compared to the local alternative, #2 fuel oil, and examines the associated economic impacts. Since there are no BDH networks endogenous to the region, an expenditure pattern approach to input–output analysis is employed. The $11.4 million spent annually over the 20 year project payment period on the construction, biomass procurement, and production of heat with BDH would generate $18.7 million in local economic activity and create 143 jobs throughout the three county model region; a significant impact if concentrated around the rural study villages. These impacts are comparable, but less than, those modeled by other studies in countries with more established BDH networks. However, the precision of the impacts generated by the model are tempered by the significant discrepancy between the study region and the three county model region which included several larger urban areas. Ultimately, the limitations associated with the model scale and the absence of established expenditure patterns inhibit major conclusions in regards to the discreet impacts of BDH to the study villages, although a significant portion of the annual impacts estimated can be expected to occur in the villages given the location of the BDH networks.

Biodiesel supply chain optimization via a hybrid system dynamics-mathematical programming approach

Development of biofuels causes reduction of environmental pollution, but certain limitations affect their production. In this research, a hybrid system dynamics-mathematical programming approach is developed to design and plan a biodiesel supply chain from biomass fields to consumption markets. The supply chain faces limitations in biodiesel production. Water resource limitations for biodiesel production, land limitations for biomass procurement, and technological issues are the most important limitations considered in the system dynamics model. In addition, competition between fossil fuels and biodiesel is taken into account. The proposed methodology, firstly, estimates the most important parameters in biodiesel supply chain in a given planning horizon. Then, estimated parameters are used as inputs of the mathematical model and the optimal supply chain decisions are made by means of a stochastic mixed-integer programming model. Besides, a scenario-based approach is used to model the disruption risks for links and biomass fields. Finally, a numerical experiment is presented to show the applicability of the methodology according to some interviews with experts in Iran. Results demonstrate the potential appropriate market of biodiesel in Iran while several resource and technology limitations and environmental pollution avoid growth of biodiesel market. Moreover, a sensitivity analysis is performed on risk preferences of decision makers and government policies adopted to improve the biodiesel market.

Nutrient Budgets in Forests Under Increased Biomass Harvesting Scenarios

A developing bioeconomy and the need for alternate sources of energy are promoting a more intensive procurement and use of forest biomass. While it is a fact that increased biomass harvesting generates greater nutrient losses from forest ecosystems relative to stem-only harvesting, the use of nutrient budget approaches as a decision support tool in managing forests under intensive biomass removal is uncommon. This lack of use can be explained by several factors including: large uncertainties in predicting certain fluxes, the poor representation of nutrient dynamics following harvest in nutrient cycling models, the lack of representation of biological feedback, the lack of appropriate validation, and finally the lack of maps of specific soil properties that would be required to predict nutrient budgets over forest landscapes. This review documents the impact of intensive biomass extraction on nutrient cycling and discusses the gaps in knowledge and the uncertainties associated with nutrient budgets. It identifies research and development issues that need to be resolved for making forest nutrient budgets more reliable and more useful to address the questions regarding the environmental sustainability of intensive biomass harvesting.

A cost-effective evaluation of biomass district heating in rural communities

The economic feasibility of Biomass District Heating (BDH) networks in rural villages is largely unknown. A cost-effective evaluation tool is developed to examine the feasibility of BDH in rural communities using secondary data sources. The approach is unique in that it accounts for all the major capital expenses: energy center, distribution network, and energy transfer stations, as well as biomass procurement. BDH would deliver heat below #2 fuel oil in eight of the ten rural study villages examined, saving nearly $500,000 per year in heating expenses while demanding less than 5% of the forest residues sustainably available regionally. Capital costs comprised over 80% of total costs, illuminating the importance of reaching a sufficient heat density. Reducing capital costs by 1% lowers total cost by $93,000 per year. Extending capital payment period length five years or lowering interest rates has the next highest influence decreasing delivered heat price 0.49% and 0.35% for each 1% change, respectively. This highlights that specific building heat is a strong determinant of feasibility given the relative influence of high-demanding users on the overall village heat-density. Finally, we use a stochastic analysis projecting future #2 fuel oil prices, incorporating historical variability, to determine the probability of future BDH feasibility. Although future oil prices drop below the BDH feasibility threshold, the villages retain a 22–53% probability of feasibility after 20years as a result of high #2 fuel oil price variability.

Systematic assessment of triticale‐based biorefinery strategies: a biomass procurement strategy for economic success

AbstractAn economical supply of biomass feedstock is an essential part of any biorefinery project. With procurement costs accounting for nearly 50% of operating costs, current biomass supply chain and procurement operations must be continuously improved to reduce procurement costs. Strategic negotiations between the farmer (the producer) and the end user (the biorefinery), in which both parties benefit, should also take place. This study examines procurement supply chains for triticale, for a biorefinery, and proposes a financial model that will satisfy both producer and end user. A biomass cost model was developed to determine the procurement costs of triticale biomass. Several biomass procurement supply chain alternatives were evaluated. Results from the study determined that a biorefinery would pay $225 per tonne of biomass for the delivery of 250 002 tonnes of triticale grain and 265 791 tonnes of triticale straw per year. In addition, the study shows that increased yields of triticale and its similarities in growing and harvesting methods with currently produced agricultural crops will rapidly enable it to become a viable feedstock source for biorefineries. The biomass procurement strategy described appears to be an attractive alternative for producers and provides a good basis for furnishing a long‐term cost‐competitive supply of feedstock to the triticale biorefinery. This financial model is based on the premise that the risk and cost of developing increasingly engineered triticale crops will be borne by the biorefinery owner. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Indian Farmers’ Perceptions and Willingness to Supply Surplus Biomass to an Envisioned Biomass-Based Power Plant

The main objectives of this socio-technical study are to investigate the Indian farmers’ biomass production capacities and their perceptions and willingness to supply their surplus biomass to fuel an envisioned biomass-based power plant in three selected Indian states: Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. For doing so, 471 farmers (about one-third from each state) have been interviewed in the field with info-sheet filled in by the field investigators. The farmers from all of the states appeared very much willing to sell their surplus biomass directly to a power plant. The farmers seem to depreciate the involvement of a middleman in the biomass procurement process. The farmers, however, appeared to highly appreciate a community-based association to regulate the biomass prices, with varying perceptions regarding government intervention. The majority of the farmers perceived the establishment of a biomass-based power plant in their region with positive economic outcomes. The farmers identified several barriers to supply biomass to a power plant where transportation logistics appeared to be the main barrier. The study recommends considering biomass collection, storage and transportation logistics as a fundamental segment of any envisioned investment in a biomass-based power plant. Biomass processing, such as pelletization or briquetting is recommended for efficient transportation of biomass at longer distances to reduce the transportation costs. The study further encourages the establishment of a farmers’ association aimed at collecting and selling biomass in agriculture areas predominant for small land holdings.

Process redesign in development of forest biomass supply for energy

Wood plays an important role in the production of renewable energy in the EU which is going to grow further in the future. The economics of operations, however, are still critical. The aim of the present thesis was to investigate the potential of process improvement measures to increase the performance of biomass to energy supply operations. Article I and II investigated the organizational structure and business process for forest biomass procurement of a German integrated roundwood and energy wood procurement chain by means of business process mapping. The business process was then analyzed and redesigned by the method of business process reengineering. Furthermore, two new business processes were developed which are to be applied in procurement operations only for energy wood. Article III analyzed the raw material allocation process currently in use by supply chains from roadside storage to plant in the Finnish region of North Karelia. It developed an alternative, information-based process using data on the transportation distance, drying models for forecasting the moisture content and data on the volume of the storages. Discreteevent simulation was used to compare current and new processes and to analyze their effects on the economics of operations. Article VI investigated the cost-saving potential of improving data management and information logistics through the application of information and communication technology. Its profitability was analyzed by a cost-benefit analysis. The economic analysis of the business process reengineering showed that the reengineered To-be process can potentially cut costs by up to 39% relative to the currently applied business process. The information-based raw material allocation process could the energy content delivered by the supply chain by up to 9% over the entire year and by up to 29% during the peak period in winter when the fuel demand of the plant is highest. Applying ICT in to investigated cases in Finland showed a net present value of 212 739 € over a time span of ten years at an annual production of 150 000 loose-m in the first case. In the second case the net present value was even 969 841 € which seemed to be very high at an annual production of 37 000 loose m. This thesis demonstrates that process improvement can considerably increase the productivity and cost-efficiency of existing forest biomass supply chains.