Procrastination Tendencies Research Articles

Procrastination and risky behaviors: preliminary results among Italian university students

Abstract Background The study aims to investigate if the tendency to procrastinate has a relationship with engaging in risky behaviors among university students. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted at the ‘Magna Græcia’ University of Catanzaro, in the Southern part of Italy, using a stratified random sample technique. Undergraduate students (ages 18 to 30) were provided with an anonymous online survey via the institutional email. The survey comprised five sections to assess procrastination levels, sleep quality, breakfast habits, alcohol and tobacco use, and social and demographic characteristics. Results Of the 404 participants, more than half were enrolled in medicine or life science majors. The procrastination mean score was 14.8(IQR 10-20). Poor sleep quality was found in 57.2% of students and women were the most affected part of the sample. The logistic regression model revealed that higher procrastination levels increased the likelihood of engaging in unhealthy behaviors such as breakfast skipping, alcohol abuse, and poor sleep quality. Furthermore, the study found that people who skipped breakfast were more likely to engage in smoking and alcohol abuse, suggesting the interconnectedness nature of unhealthy behaviors. Conclusions The study’s findings shed light on the correlation between procrastination and unhealthy habits. Moreover, the results can offer recommendations for how universities might successfully support students by implementing integrated, evidence-based programs to assist students who struggle with procrastination. Indeed, universities can serve as centers for promoting wellness by increasing awareness of the need to change deeply rooted behavioral patterns. Hence, breaking the vicious cycle of procrastination can ultimately lead to improved academic performance and overall well-being for students. This will benefit both individuals’ and the general public’s health. Key messages • The novel correlation between procrastination and risky behaviors among university students was shown. • Targeted interventions must include procrastination tendency to improve academic results and general well-being.

Acceptability of Nudge in Digital Learning Environment

ABSTRACTDigital nudging is gaining traction in the educational domain to guide students' decision‐making processes and achieve desirable learning outcomes through subtle changes in the digital learning environment. From the information science perspective, these changes are realized through informational cues and human‐computer interface design to affect the influences. Studies have shown nudge effectiveness in influencing students' behaviors, but the extent to which digital nudging affects them and who is susceptible to nudges remains unclear. Although progress has been made in understanding nudge acceptability, research in the context of learning and students' characteristics, such as procrastination behavior, remains limited. To fill this gap, this study surveyed 305 university students to assess their nudge acceptability on two types of nudges: System 1, which involves automatic and intuitive processes, and System 2, which engages deliberate and reflective thinking. The results show that students, regardless of their procrastination tendencies, were receptive to nudges in supporting their learning. System 1 nudge was preferred due to its simplistic and straightforward intervention approach. The insights gained from this study contributed to the advancement of nudge research by demonstrating that students with various procrastination tendencies were receptive to nudging and guiding researchers in designing tailored nudges to maximize effectiveness.

Relationship between the intraindividual interplay of negative and positive exam-related emotions and the behavioral-emotional dimensions of academic procrastination

AbstractAlthough achievement situations trigger multiple emotions and learners experience both negative and positive emotions simultaneously, procrastination research typically examines isolated relationships between specific emotions and procrastination. The potential interplay of negative and positive emotions regarding procrastination is often overlooked, although this perspective can shed light on their dynamic relationships. Moreover, past studies primarily address the behavioral aspect of procrastination (delay) while overlooking its emotional facet (subjective discomfort), albeit this differentiation could enhance understanding of procrastination and its correlates. The present study explores the understudied interplay of the two most frequently experienced negative (anxiety) and positive (hope) exam-related emotions regarding students’ procrastination tendencies with differentiated behavioral and emotional dimensions. The study analyzes cross-sectional data from two independent studies (Nstudy1 = 266, Nstudy2 = 468) conducted in Germany among university students. Latent profile analyses (LPA) reveal three similar profiles across both studies—High Anxiety–Low Hope, Low Anxiety–High Hope and Moderate Anxiety–Moderate Hope— and two study-specific profiles namely, Low Anxiety–Moderate Hope (Study 1) and High Anxiety–Moderate Hope (Study 2). Females compared to males are more likely to belong to the anxiety-dominated profiles. Overall, students in anxiety-dominated profiles report higher scores whereas students in hope-dominated profiles report lower scores on both behavioral and emotional dimensions of academic procrastination. This study advances an integrated approach that incorporates the combined effects of both negative and positive emotions concerning procrastination. Findings further inform research efforts towards identifying risk and protective emotional factors to develop tailored intervention against academic procrastination.

The role of big five traits and self-esteem on academic procrastination in Honduran and Spanish university students: A cross-cultural study

Academic procrastination, a prevalent issue in higher education, has been associated with various adverse outcomes. This study aims to discern and compare the degrees of academic procrastination among university students in Honduras and Spain while also investigating the relationship between academic procrastination and the Big Five personality factors alongside self-esteem. The sample comprised 457 university students, encompassing 237 Hondurans and 220 Spaniards. The research employed descriptive, comparative, correlational, and regression analyses. Honduran university students exhibited a significantly lower level of academic procrastination. Correlational analyses revealed that self-esteem and all Big Five personality factors, except for neuroticism in the Spanish cohort, displayed noteworthy associations with academic procrastination. Further regression analyses demonstrated that conscientiousness emerged as a significant predictor of procrastination in both samples. This study's findings can be pivotal in identifying students at risk of procrastination at an early stage. Additionally, the results can inform the development of intervention programs designed to mitigate procrastination tendencies among university students.

Comparison of Acceptance vs. Abstinence Self-Control Techniques Effects on Procrastination and Well-Being in Video-Gamers

<i>Activities that bring short-term pleasure, such as video gaming, have an ambiguous effect on long-term goal attainment. From one perspective, they are a source of positive affect, which helps people to overcome procrastination and finally initiate the planned task. However, these short-term pleasure activities may become the source of procrastination themselves, tempting people to engage in them beyond the intended timeframe. The present study attempts to resolve this conflict. It implies a novel “qualitative experiment” methodology in order to test a behavioral strategy; taking 10-minute breaks after each game round, which is aimed to help gamers control their desire to play beyond the self-imposed limit. Over the course of two weeks, participants who used this strategy (Strategy group) reported a similar decrease in procrastination tendencies compared to participants who totally abstained from video gaming (Abstinence group) and a larger decrease in procrastination compared to participants who played in their regular routine (Control group). In addition, the Strategy group reported a higher sense of emotional well-being than both the Abstinence and the Control ones. These results corroborate the effectiveness of the self-control model, oriented on the productive coexistence of hedonic pleasures and long-term goals.</i>

Catalysts and Challenges in Essay Writing Proficiency among College Students: Insights from Motivation, Literacy, Cognition, and Language Skills

Abstract. This study delves into the various factors that influence the essay writing skills of college students, including motivation, literacy, cognitive abilities, and language proficiency. A mixed-method approach was used, combining qualitative and quantitative methods. The data was collected through questionnaire surveys and interviews to analyze the impact of these factors on students' writing capabilities. The findings reveal that the majority of students find writing enjoyable, with over 90% expressing interest in essay composition. However, procrastination tendencies were observed, with 46% of students admitting to submitting essays on the last day. Furthermore, excessive instructor feedback negatively affected the motivation of more than 50% of respondents. Regarding literacy, approximately 66% of students engage in daily reading, a critical component for enhancing writing skills. A strong correlation between reading and writing was identified, as students often utilize relevant sources to support their essays. However, 75% of participants admitted to reading primarily within the confines of coursework. Cognitive capabilities played a significant role, with over 80% of students effectively planning and developing essay content. However, content comprehension proved to be challenging for 56%, affecting the coherence of their essays. Interviews revealed difficulties in paragraph development and topic selection. Language skills were deemed essential for coherent writing, with 80% of students constructing sentences adeptly and employing grammar effectively. Despite these skills, students struggled with syntax and word choice. Interviews highlighted issues with sentence construction and word selection, impacting the clarity of their messages. The research findings can potentially be implemented to design strategies, models, and learning media that focus on improving the essay writing proficiency of college students.Keywords: Motivation, Literacy, Cognitive Abilities, Language Skills, Essay Writing

Distance Learning Students’ Perspectives of Academic Procrastination: A Qualitative Investigation

This study explores academic procrastination among postgraduate distance learners, a topic that has received limited attention. Through qualitative interviews with participants, the authors conducted thematic analysis on their experiences. Three overarching themes emerged: perception, reasons, and reflection of academic procrastination among distance learners. Notably, participants frequently procrastinated, primarily due to study-life balance challenges. Surprisingly, participants expressed overall satisfaction with their academic performance despite procrastination tendencies. They considered procrastination a conscious choice, prioritizing other life commitments over studying. This study sheds light on the influence of external factors on procrastination behavior in distance learning. The findings suggest that academic procrastination is prevalent among distance learning students, with study-life balance being a significant predictor. Participants’ satisfaction with their academic performance suggests that procrastination may be a deliberate choice. This research highlights the need for tailored interventions to address procrastination in distance education settings.

The Effect of Computer Monitoring on Employees’ Productivity in Telecommuting Arrangements

When employees work from home, organizations have traditionally placed a stronger reliance on output-based controls because of the inability to physically observe its employees. Because of recent advances in technology, however, many organizations now use input-based controls. One such input-based control is computer monitoring, which records the number of hours spent working and leaves out any time in which an employee does not perform work activities. On the one hand, computer monitoring may provide productivity-enhancing benefits by reducing the likelihood of employees experiencing self-control problems, such as procrastination. On the other hand, computer monitoring may motivate reduced effort by decreasing employees’ autonomy, which a prior study finds is an important mediator of the relation between telecommuting and productivity. We take advantage of a field-research setting in which the organization adopts computer monitoring for its telecommuting employees. We find that computer monitoring leads to a 7.1% productivity increase for telecommuting employees. We also find that computer monitoring reduces employees’ procrastination tendencies. In addition, we find that low performers’ productivity increases more following the introduction of computer monitoring. Finally, we find evidence that telecommuters’ departure rates increase significantly following computer monitoring. Our results suggest that technology can play a significant role in expanding organizations’ management control choices when achieving controls in telecommuting arrangements. This paper was accepted by Suraj Srinivasan, accounting. Supplemental Material: The online appendix and data files are available at https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2022.00588 .

The Relationship Between Conscientiousness and Procrastination

This paper delves into the intricate relationship between conscientiousness, procrastination, and growth mindset, offering a comprehensive exploration of how these psychological factors interact to shape task management behaviors and academic outcomes. Drawing from seminal studies, including research by John Wiley & Sons and David, this paper explores the hierarchical interplay between conscientiousness and procrastination traits, where conscientiousness acts as a higher-order factor influencing specific procrastination behaviors. This research delves into the pivotal role of accountability as a mediator, showcasing how fostering responsibility can mitigate procrastination tendencies among students. The introduction of the growth mindset as a moderator reveals the potential for proactive strategies to combat procrastination. Furthermore, the identification of physiological anxiety as a potential underlying mechanism adds a novel dimension, emphasizing the intricate interplay between psychological and physiological responses to task-related stressors. These findings collectively inform the design of evidence-based interventions that empower individuals to conquer procrastination, enhance task management skills, and achieve academic success.

The mixed-method approach to identify perceived reasons for increased procrastination among students during the first pandemic lockdown in Poland

The beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic brought about a sudden and significant change in the conditions of various academic activities. In the present study, we wanted to investigate the influence of the first pandemic lockdown on procrastination tendencies among Polish students. To achieve this goal we employed a mixed-method, embedded longitudinal study. In the quantitative part of the research, the same group of university students completed the procrastination questionnaire twice: a year before, and two months after the introduction of the first pandemic lockdown. The qualitative part included the open-ended questions about the perceived reasons for an observed change in a tendency to postpone tasks after the pandemic outbreak. Our analyses showed a significant increase in academic procrastination after the lockdown introduction. In particular, students reported a decrease in the study interest and lower working discipline. As the causes of higher procrastination during the lockdown period, students most frequently pointed out the reduced monitoring of work progress by supervisors and lower negative consequences of delaying tasks. The second most frequent theme in provided answers included difficulty in restraining from alternative activities and problems with focusing on tasks or ignoring distractions. Embedding qualitative and quantitative data gave a consistent picture of students' situation in the first lockdown and provided potential explanation for the exacerbation of procrastinatory behaviors after the pandemic outbreak.

The relationship between productivity, burnout and procrastination at work

The present research aimed to investigate the relationship between procrastination, productivity, and exhaustion levels at the workplace. The objectives were to identify differences in the level of workplace exhaustion based on participants' gender, marital status, andprocrastination tendencies. Additionally, the study aimed to identify statistically significant correlations between productivity and exhaustion, as well as between productivity and procrastination. A total of 59 participants from Constanța took part in the study, consisting of 36 females and 23 males. Their marital status was divided into those in a relationship (38) and those single (21). Ages were categorized into four groups (18-24, 25-34, 35-44, 45-55). The instruments used for data collection were the Workplace Productivity and Activity Impairment Questionnaire (WPAI), the Inventory of Professional Exhaustion (original version), and the Procrastination at Work Scale (PAWS). In pursuit of the research objectives, five hypotheses were formulated, with four being confirmed. Consequently, significant differences between females and males in both procrastination tendencies and workplace exhaustion were identified. Furthermore, marital statusproved to be a factor influencing exhaustion levels, with participants in relationships exhibiting a higher degree of exhaustion. Additionally, a negative correlation was demonstrated between exhaustion levels and productivity. In conclusion, a clearer picture emerges regarding therelationship between procrastination, productivity, and workplace exhaustion. Participants from Constanța County provided valuable data contributing to the achievement of the set objectives and the evaluation of the formulated hypotheses. Thus, these findings not only aid in understanding workplace dynamics but also provide a foundation for developing personalized strategies for time and stress management aimed at enhancing performance and reducing workplace exhaustion.

Time perspectives and procrastination in university students: exploring the moderating role of basic psychological need satisfaction

BackgroundResearch on procrastination, regarding time perspective factors and basic psychological need satisfaction (BPNS) has placed this problem at the meeting point of individual and contextual variables. The present study focused both on the individual, given that time perspectives can be defined as a person’s attitude to an object (time) at three moments (present, past, future); and on contextual aspects, because the satisfaction of basic psychological needs (competence, autonomy, relatedness) is facilitated or made difficult by social contexts. Based on this, the aim of this study was to analyse the relationships between time perspectives and inter-subject procrastination variations, testing the moderating role of BPNS in this relationship.MethodA total of 1,188 undergraduate students, aged 17–50 years (M = 20.02, SD = 2.63), completed three questionnaires containing the variables of interest.ResultsRegression analyses showed significant negative (thus, potentially protective) association of future time perspective with all three procrastination dimensions (decisional procrastination, implemental delay, and lateness). Conversely, past-negative time perspective showed a positive (thus, potentially adverse) association with procrastination. Satisfaction of the need for competence also showed a negative (thus, potentially protective) association with all procrastination dimensions. On eight occasions, the relationships between time perspectives and procrastination dimensions were moderated by psychological need satisfaction.ConclusionsThese findings show that BPNS may play relevant roles in the negative (favourable) relationships between procrastination dimensions and positive time perspectives, as well as in the positive (adverse) associations between negative time perspectives and procrastination dimensions. Contextual interventions fostering enhanced levels of perceived autonomy, competence, and relatedness, as well as future time perspective, are thus strong candidates to consider for use and evaluation by policy makers, pedagogues, teachers, coaches and other professionals interested in counteracting procrastination tendencies.

The Group-based Compassion-focused Intervention on Academic Procrastination, Anxiety, and Quality of Life of University Students: A Controlled Trial With 3-month Follow-up

Objectives Procrastination is one of the critical issues for university students and is associated with various psychological problems. This study examined the effectiveness of group compassion-focused intervention on procrastination, anxiety, and quality of life of (QoL) university students. Methods This research is an experimental study of clinical trial type. The study participants were 40 students of Iran University of Medical Sciences selected by a convenience sampling method. After obtaining informed consent, they completed the demographic questionnaire; academic procrastination questionnaire; depression, anxiety, and stress scale-21 (DASS-21); and personal wellbeing index–adult (PWI-A), before, immediately after, and three months after the intervention. The experimental group received eight 120-minute sessions of group compassion-focused therapy once a week, while the control group received no intervention. The data were compared using GLM repeated measures analysis of variance (GLMRM). Results Regarding procrastination, there is no significant difference between the average preparation for assignments and the tendency to change people›s procrastination at different evaluation times. However, the interaction effect of time and group has a significance level smaller than 0.05, indicating a significant difference between the average preparation for the tasks of the experimental and control groups at different evaluation times (F=4.439, P=0.043). The effect size of 0.115 indicates a moderate effect. There is also a significant difference between the procrastination tendency of the experimental and control groups at different evaluation times (F=8.348, P=0.007). The effect size of 0.197 indicates a moderate effect. Also, there is a significant difference between the experimental and control groups› average anxiety (F=35.62, P=0.000) and quality of life (F=14.57, P=0.001) at different evaluation times. The size of the effect indicates its strength. Conclusion Group compassion-focused intervention can be used as an effective therapy in working with students. However, more studies are needed to examine and compare other variables with other evidence-based treatments.

Impact of Mindfulness on sleep quality in innovative corporate employees: A chain mediation of Social Interaction Anxiety and bedtime procrastination.

In the context of innovative enterprises in China, the significance of sleep quality for employees' physical and mental well-being cannot be understated. This study explores the complex relationship between Mindfulness and sleep quality and examines the potential interaction between Social Interaction Anxiety and prolonged sleep behavior. To this end, a thorough evaluation involving the administration of the Mindfulness scale, Social Interaction Anxiety scale, sleep delay scale, and the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) was conducted among a significant sample of innovative enterprise employees (N = 1648). The findings reveal that a notable proportion of these employees, 31.1% to be precise (as per PSQI 8), grapple with compromised sleep quality. Subsequent analyses shed light on compelling patterns, underscoring a robust negative correlation between Mindfulness and factors like Social Interaction Anxiety, sleep delay, and sleep quality (β = -0.71, -0.37, -0.35; P < 0.01). Conversely, a significant positive correlation emerges connecting Social Interaction Anxiety, sleep delay, and sleep quality (β = 0.23, 0.37, 0.32; P < 0.01). Interestingly, mediation analysis demonstrates that Mindfulness significantly negatively influences sleep quality, independent of demographic factors such as sex and age. This impact is mediated by sleep delay, which also interacts with Social Interaction Anxiety. In summary, the research emphasizes the predictive function of Mindfulness in improving sleep quality among employees in innovative enterprises, achieved through its reduction of Social Interaction Anxiety and bedtime procrastination tendencies.

Nomophobia and Its Relationship with Social Anxiety and Procrastination in Nursing Students: An Observational Study.

An observational, descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted in a sample of 308 nursing students. Data were collected using the Nomophobia Questionnaire, Academic Procrastination Scale-Short Form, and Social Anxiety Questionnaire for Adults. Additionally, sociodemographic variables related to academic performance and smartphone use were collected. We performed a descriptive, bivariate, and multivariate analysis of the Nomophobia Questionnaire score. 19.5% (n = 60) of the students presented with or were at high risk of nomophobic behaviour. Moreover, nomophobic behaviour was positively correlated with high levels of social anxiety (p < 0.001), longer daily smartphone usage time (p < 0.001), and a high frequency of smartphone checking in class (p < 0.001). The predictive variables for nomophobic behaviour included age, variables related to smartphone use, social anxiety levels, work, procrastination tendency, sex, and self-reported average grade. One out of five students in the sample studied presented with or were at high risk of nomophobic behaviour. Additionally, nomophobic behaviour was associated with social anxiety and variables related to smartphone use. This study was not registered.

Üniversite Öğrencilerinde Akademik Erteleme Davranışının Çeşitli Değişkenlere Göre İncelenmesi

In the twenty-first century, researchers continue to investigate procrastination behavior with curiosity. The study of procrastination gains a new dimension due to changing parameters, including time perception, life uncertainties, psychological disorders, evolving conditions, emerging opportunities, and advancing technology. Although procrastination can be observed at all ages and under all conditions, it is a common behavior among university students who are undergoing a significant transition to adulthood. This study aims to investigate whether academic procrastination in university students varies based on different variables. In the study, a descriptive survey was conducted with quantitative data. The procrastination behavior tendencies of 267 university students enrolled in the central faculties of a state university in Turkey were examined. The Academic Procrastination Scale and information form including demographic questions prepared by the researchers were used as data collection tools. Since the data had normal distribution according to the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, the independent groups’ t-test and ANOVA were used to determine whether there was a difference in the procrastination scores of the students based on factors and total scores according to the variables. Findings showed that the procrastination tendencies of the students differed in terms of gender, faculty, department, duration of telephone use and telephone use purposes, interest in the department, and perceptions of competence in the field. How students utilize procrastination behavior is crucial when planning activities. Parameters should be handled in accordance with age. In newer studies, causal and longitudinal studies can be conducted by incorporating various variables into the research. Development or intervention programs can be executed with repetitive studies.

Academic Procrastination Among the Students in Thesis Writing

Abstract. Academic Procrastination is a phenomenon of postponing work that rely on academician including college student. In terms of academic procrastination this research aims to explain academic procrastination phenomenon in final year student on their thesis writing that focus on to explain the tendency of academic procrastination and investigate the reason why the final year student tends to do academic procrastination. The participants of this research consist of 4 students from 12th semester and 4 students from 14th semester that can represent the final year student. This research used purposive sampling with semi structure interview, and it analyzed with qualitative method interactive cycle by Miles Huberman. The result showed that there is a tendency of academic procrastination in final year students, and the reason why the students do academic procrastination is divided into two branches such as internal and external. Internal factors include laziness, perfectionism, mentally unstable, social media addiction, and linguistic and conceptual factors. External factors include environment, other people's pressure, and family issues. Keywords: Academic Procrastination, Thesis Writing, Final Year Student

HOW UKRAINIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS ACADEMICALLY PROCRASTINATE IN CONDITIONS OF FORCED-ONLINE-LEARNING CAUSED BY THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC AND WARTIME

This study aims to investigate the features of academic procrastination among higher education students in the context of forced online learning caused by the COVID-19 pandemic and wartime in Ukraine. Methods. A total of 789 higher education students enrolled in Ukrainian institutions participated in the study, responding to six questionnaires. The research focused on examining the correlation between academic procrastination indicators, self-organization, and the preferred forms of learning during the period of forced online learning. The results indicate that forced online learning has a positive impact on the manifestation of academic procrastination among students and does not promote their self-organization. Significantly higher levels of academic procrastination were observed in students who solely studied online compared to those in the mixed format, involving both online and face-to-face learning. Conversely, students in the mixed format exhibited less pronounced indicators of academic procrastination and higher levels of self-organization and conscientiousness. Moreover, the study identified a new type of academic procrastination labeled as "active academic procrastination." Unlike its negative connotation, this type is perceived as a part of the process of forced online learning. In conclusion, the research expands the theoretical understanding of academic procrastination among students and sheds light on its manifestation during forced online learning. The findings emphasize the importance of considering the learning format's influence on students' procrastination tendencies and offer insights into fostering better self-organization and motivation in the context of online education during challenging circumstances.

Role of Self-Control on Academic Procrastination: A Literature Review

There are five things that are frequently linked to high procrastination tendencies, including social anxiety, poor self-control, self-consciousness, low self-esteem, and self-efficacy. The key component of these five areas on which this study focuses is self-control. Since the method of this research is a literature review, then the objectives of this paper are to define academic procrastination and self-control, describe the variables that affect students’ academic procrastination, list the aspects and kinds of self-control, and identify the impact of self-control on academic procrastination based on prior studies. The review of literature reveals that students’ academic procrastination is significantly influenced by self-control techniques. The majority of earlier studies determined that there is a negative association between academic procrastination and self-control which means a student's self-control will be poor if academic procrastination is high, and vice versa.

Diagnostic criteria to differentiate pathological procrastinators from common delayers: a re-analysis.

Detection and treatment of clinically relevant forms of procrastination would be greatly facilitated by diagnostic criteria as formulated for psychological disorders in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-5). In the present article, the steps for deriving and validating diagnostic criteria for pathological procrastination are described. In an online survey of a random sample of N = 10,000 German university students, 990 answered 13 items derived from the attempts in the literature to define procrastination, the Aitken Procrastination Inventory (API) and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). A subset of six items related to the first factor onset delay of the API was selected by Best Subset Multiple Regression (BSMR). A latent class analysis (LCA) of these six items sorted the students into six clusters. A cluster of pathological procrastinators (10%) was separated from the clusters of less impaired habitual, average, and occasional delayers. In addition, a cluster of unconcerned delayers (10%), with strong procrastination tendencies but little personal disadvantages, and a small cluster of fast performers (2%) emerged. The pathological procrastinators differed from all other clusters significantly on nine of the 13 items. They were older, had studied longer but had fulfilled less of their study obligations and were more depressed. The answer options of the six questions were collapsed into two categories (procrastination feature present for at least half a year or absent). These criteria were used for the clinical diagnosis of pathological procrastination. For a diagnosis, two fixed criteria (delaying important tasks needlessly and strong interference with personal goals) plus at least two of four additional criteria (time spent procrastinating, time pressure, physical and psychological complaints, below performance potential) must be met. This diagnostic rule captured 92% from the cluster of pathological procrastinators and 10% of the habitual delayers, but no one from the remaining clusters. Using these diagnostic criteria for clinical diagnosis and intervention decisions will facilitate the comparison and integration of the results from future studies of procrastination.