Procion Navy Research Articles

Efficient adsorption of bulky reactive dyes from water using sustainably-derived mesoporous carbons

Hazardous reactive dyes can cause serious environmental problems, as they are difficult to remove from water using conventional adsorbents due to their large molecular sizes and bulky structures. Sustainable mesoporous carbons derived from alginic acid demonstrated promising adsorbent capacity for several representative industrial bulky reactive dye molecules that account for almost 30% of the global textile dye market: Procion Yellow H-XEL (PY), Remazol Black (RB), Procion Crimson H-XEL (PC) and Procion Navy H-XEL (PN). These new adsorbents showed high mesoporosity (>90%) and large pore diameters (>20 nm) facilitating more straightforward and efficient adsorption and desorption processes when compared with predominately microporous activated carbon (AC), Norit, of similar surface chemistry, or with Silica gel (Sgel) that shows good mesoporosity but is hydrophilic. Their adsorption capacity was also significantly higher than that of both AC and Sgel, verifying suitability for bulky dye elimination from wastewater. Adsorption kinetic studies showed a best fit with the Elovich model, indicating a heterogeneous surface adsorption process. The adsorption isotherm data was best represented via the Toth model for almost all adsorbent/dye systems (R2 ≥ 0.98), validating the results of the Elovich model whereby the adsorbent is structurally heterogenous with multilayer dye coverage. From thermodynamic analysis, the derived parameters of ΔG (−11.6 ∼ −6.2 kJ/mol), ΔH and ΔS demonstrate a spontaneous, enthalpy controlled adsorption process that was exothermic for RB (−10.0 kJ/mol) and PC (−23.9 kJ/mol) and endothermic for PY (3.9 kJ/mol) and PN (13.2 kJ/mol). Overall these alginic acid based mesoporous carbons are cost-effective, sustainable and efficient alternatives to current predominantly microporous adsorbent systems.

In situ Decolorization Monitoring of Textile Dyes for an Optimized UV-LED/TiO2 Reactor

Heterogeneous photocatalysis, using photocatalysts in suspension to eliminate diverse contaminants, including textile wastewater, has several advantages. Nevertheless, current absorbance and decolorization measurements imply sample acquisition by extraction at a fixed rate with consequent photocatalyst removal. This study presents online monitoring for the decolorization of six azo dyes, Orange PX-2R (OP2), Remazol Black B133 (RB), Procion Crimson H-EXL (PC), Procion Navy H-EXL (PN), Procion Blue H-EXL (PB), and Procion Yellow H-EXL (PY), analyzing the spectrum measured in situ by using the light scattering provided by the photocatalyst in suspension. The results obtained have corroborated the feasibility of obtaining absorbance and decolorization measurements, avoiding disturbances in the process due to a decrease in the volume in the reactor.

Electrochemical treatment of real textile wastewater: Trichromy Procion HEXL®

The electrochemical treatment of wastewaters from the textile industry is a promising technique for not easily biodegradable compounds. This work is aimed at studying the electrochemical degradation of bifunctional reactive dyes after a real dyeing process. These are: Procion Yellow HELX®, Procion Crimson HELX® and Procion Navy HELX®, which are widely used in dyeing processes of cellulose fibers. Their structure is mainly characterized by the presence of two azo groups as chromophore group and two monochlorotriazinic groups as reactive groups. Electrolyses were carried out under galvanostatic conditions in an undivided electrolytic cell. Ti/SnO2-Sb-Pt and stainless steel electrodes were used as anode and cathode, respectively. In all cases Na2SO4 was used as electrolyte without external addition of chloride.The degree of degradation was evaluated by means of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) measurements.The decolourization kinetics and the presence of the intermediates generated due to of the electrochemical treatment were studied by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and these studies were also carried out with UV–Visible and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopies.In all cases, a decrease in TOC and COD, and a complete decolourization were obtained after the electrochemical treatment. AOS and COS data proved the presence of oxidised intermediates in solution after the electrolyses. These results suggest the possibility of reusing the treated water in several dyeing processes.

Development of Adsorbent Material from Tamarind-Seed Testa for Reactive Dye Adsorption

In this research, the adsorbent material was developed from the agricultural waste, tamarind-seed testa. The adsorption of 6 different reactive dyes viz. Procion Red H-E7B, Procion Yellow H-E4R, Procion Navy H-ER, Remazol Brilliant Red F3B gran, Remazol Yellow 3BS-A 150% and Remazol Black B 133%, on the adsorbent prepared from tamarind-seed testa was investigated. The chemical composition analysis showed that the major components in the tamarind-seed testa were lignin and carbohydrates (cellulose and hemicellulose). When the bleached tamarind-seed testa was used as an adsorbent, it was found to efficiently adsorb the reactive dyes at pH 2 without any assisting mechanical agitation. The reactive dye exhibiting ultimate adsorption on the adsorbent was Procion Navy H-ER (66.3 mg/g). A high rate of dye adsorbed capacity was noticed in the first hour and the equilibrium adsorption was reached within 3 hours.

Optimisation of the electrochemical and UV combined treatment to remove colour and organic halogenated compounds of textile effluents

Different electrochemical oxidation and UV irradiation treatment conditions were studied to improve the removal of colour and organic halogenated compounds of textile effluents wastewater so as to minimise their environmental impact. Synthetic dyeing effluents containing a reactive dye (CI Reactive Black 5, Procion Crimson H-EXL, Procion Navy H-EXL, Procion Yellow H-EXL and Procion Blue H-EXL) and Na2SO4 as dyeing electrolyte were studied. Ti/Pt oxides electrodes at different current densities (3,6,12,24 and 40mA/cm2) and three UV irradiation lamps (6 and 9W; 254, 360 and 365nm maximum emission) were used. Results showed that total colour and organic halogenated compounds removal were achieved by UV irradiation after electrochemical treatment. A clear influence of current density and the type of UV lamp on colour removal was found, being the submerged lamps into the dye solution the most efficient. Kinetic constants of the UV irradiation step were calculated.

Evaluation of Turkish bentonite for removal of dyes from textile wastewaters

Removal of reactive dyes from textile industry wastewaters is a great economic and environmental challenge. In this study, systematic adsorption tests were carried out using natural and modified bentonites to remove a textile dye, Procion Navy HEXL. The results indicated an optimum at 0.1% solids concentration and 4 h of mixing time. The modified bentonite (hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide, HTAB) had a 12-fold increase in the adsorption capacity compared to the natural bentonite. The zeta potential experiments revealed that the negative surface charge of natural bentonite at all pH values became positive upon modification with HTAB. These results clearly indicated that the negatively charged dye can adsorb onto bentonite surface via electrostatic attraction. In addition, adsorption isotherm models (Langmuir, Freundlich and Dubinin-Radushkevich) were used to analyze the adsorption in the dye-bentonite system. It is concluded that bentonite after surface modification can be conveniently used in the abatement of reactive azo dyes in textile wastewaters.

Colour removal of three reactive dyes by UV light exposure after electrochemical treatment

This study applies UV light irradiation after a low current density electrochemical treatment to degrade reactive dyes to remove wastewater colour. The combination of these two techniques improves the quality of the treated effluent with respect to only an electrochemical treatment. Synthetic dyeing effluents containing a reactive dye (C.I. Reactive Orange 4, C.I. Reactive Black 5 or Procion Navy H-EXL) and Na 2SO 4 were studied. Ti/Pt oxides electrodes and UV irradiation lamp (6 W, 254 nm maximum emission) were used. Kinetic constants of the UV irradiation step were calculated. The influence of chloride ion at 3 and 6 mA/cm 2 was evaluated. Results showed that, with a very small Cl − concentration (in the order of the net water content) the combined techniques provided full decolourization. The possible presence of 25 organic halogenated compounds was studied by gas chromatography–mass spectrophotometry (GCMS). Only four of them were detected after the electrochemical treatment at low intensity, mainly chloroform. Its concentration was found to be highly dependent of the Cl − concentration, being much lower when reducing the amount of chloride ion. In all cases, the chloroform concentration was dramatically reduced by further UV irradiation which destroyed it up to a 75%.

Effect of system parameters and of inorganic salts on the decolorization and degradation of Procion H-exl dyes. Comparison of H 2O 2/UV, Fenton, UV/Fenton, TiO 2/UV and TiO 2/UV/H 2O 2 processes

Reactive dyes are extensively used in the last years due to their superior performance, but they are environmentally hazardous. In the present work, the decolorization and degradation of commercial reactive azo dyes (Procion Navy H-exl, Procion Crimson H-exl and Procion Yellow H-exl) were studied using five advanced oxidation processes (AOPs): H 2O 2/UV, Fenton, UV/Fenton, TiO 2/UV and TiO 2/UV/H 2O 2. The dependence of the decolorization on the system parameters (solution pH, dye and reactants initial concentrations, and TiO 2 loading) and on the presence of salts (NaCl, Na 2CO 3, NaHCO 3, Na 2SO 4, NaNO 3 and Na 3PO 4) was investigated. The decolorization (determined by spectrophotometric analysis) and the degradation (determined as TOC reduction) were compared for the different processes examined. The decolorization of the Procion H-exl solutions considered was found to strongly depend on the system parameters in all five AOPs. Although decolorization is very fast for the Fenton process and becomes even faster for the UV/Fenton process, degradation rates are relatively low for these two methods. Addition of H 2O 2 increases the decolorization and especially the degradation rates for the TiO 2/UV process. The H 2O 2/UV and TiO 2/UV/H 2O 2 processes result in the fastest dye degradation. The addition of the salts examined has in general an adverse effect on the decolorization rates, but to a varying degree depending on the salt used.

The effect of the textile industry dye bath additive EDTMPA on colour removal characteristics by ozone oxidation

In this study, the effects of the phosphonic acid based sequestering agent EDTMPA used in the textile dye baths on colour and organic matter removal by ozone oxidation was experimentally investigated. Procion Navy HEXL dyestuff that has been commonly used for the reactive dyeing of cellulose fibers was selected as the model component. The organic matter oxidation by ozone was determined to obey the pseudo-first order kinetics as they are treated singly or in combination. COD removal rates obtained from pseudo-first order reaction kinetics showed that oxidation of Navy HEXL alone (0.0947 L/min) was faster than that of EDTMPA (0.0171 L/min) and EDTMPA with dye (0.0155 L/min) at pH 3.0. It was also found that reaction rates of single EDTMPA removal and EDTMPA and dye mixture removal increased as the reaction pH was increased from 3.0 to 10.5.

Degradation of textile dyes mediated by plant peroxidases.

The peroxidase enzyme from the plants Ipomea palmata (1.003 IU/g of leaf) and Saccharum spontaneum (3.6 IU/g of leaf) can be used as an alternative to the commercial source of horseradish and soybean peroxidase enzyme for the decolorization of textile dyes, mainly azo dyes. Eight textiles dyes currently used by the industry and seven other dyes were selected for decolorization studies at 25-200 mg/L levels using these plant enzymes. The enzymes were purified prior to use by ammonium sulfate precipitation, and ion exchange and gel permeation chromatographic techniques. Peroxidase of S. spontaneum leaf (specific activity of 0.23 IU/mg) could completely degrade Supranol Green and Procion Green HE-4BD (100%) dyes within 1 h, whereas Direct Blue, Procion Brilliant Blue H-7G and Chrysoidine were degraded >70% in 1 h. Peroxidase of Ipomea (I. palmata leaf; specific activity of 0.827 U/mg) degraded 50 mg/L of the dyes Methyl Orange (26%), Crystal Violet (36%), and Supranol Green (68%) in 2-4 h and Brilliant Green (54%), Direct Blue (15%), and Chrysoidine (44%) at the 25 mg/L level in 1 to 2 h of treatment. The Saccharum peroxidase was immobilized on a hydrophobic matrix. Four textile dyes, Procion Navy Blue HER, Procion Brilliant Blue H-7G, Procion Green HE-4BD, and Supranol Green, at an initial concentration of 50 mg/L were completely degraded within 8 h by the enzyme immobilized on the modified polyethylene matrix. The immobilized enzyme was used in a batch reactor for the degradation of Procion Green HE-4BD and the reusability was studied for 15 cycles, and the half-life was found to be 60 h.

In situ hypochlorous acid generation for the treatment of textile wastewater

An electrolytic process based on chlorine generation was adopted to treat wastewater containing textile dyes. In situ production of hypochlorous acid was achieved in an undivided electrolytic cell. The cell contained a graphite rod as the anode and a stainless steel sheet as the cathode. The generated chlorine reacts with water leading to the formation of hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid. The resultant hypochlorous acid, being an oxidising agent, oxidises the organic components present in the textile wastewater. In this study, the colour in wastewater containing Procion Navy and Procion Red dyes, respectively, was completely removed after 40 min of electrolysis at a constant current density of 39 mA/cm2 (where the initial dye concentrations were 3700 and 3200 mg/l, respectively). In the case of the Procion Yellow and composite dyes, complete colour removal occurred after 50 min of electrolysis (with initial dye concentrations of 3500 mg/l). Even though colour removal occurred during the electrolysis process, it required up to 180 min of electrolysis to reduce the COD values for the four dyes (Procion Navy, Red, Yellow and the composite) from the initial levels of 4520, 4200, 4170 and 4283 mg/l to 70, 45, 39 and 52 mg/l, respectively. This clearly indicates that the process removes both colour and organic components present in textile wastewater.

Differential dye-ligand chromatography as a general purification protocol for 2-keto-3-deoxy-6-phosphogluconate aldolases

2-Keto-3-deoxy-6-phosphogluconate aldolases (KDPG aldolases, EC 4.1.2.14) from four sources, Esherichia coli, Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas saccharophila, and Zymononas mobilis, were purified from 17- to 48- fold by differential dye-ligand chromatography (DD-L chromatography). This technique, using Procion Navy H-ER (150 grain) as a negative column and Procion Yellow MX-GR as a positive column supported on Sepharose CL-4B, represents a general methodology for the rapid, facile purification of KDPG aldolases from disparate microbial sources.

Overexpression of catalytically active yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase in Escherichia coli.

E. coli expression plasmids for yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (EC 3.1.3.11) as wild-type enzyme and as lacZ fusion protein have been constructed from a pUC vector and a fragment of genomic yeast DNA. Both proteins were overexpressed in E. coli strain TG2 as enzymatically active soluble forms and purified to homogeneity. While the wild-type enzyme is indistinguishable from the authentic yeast enzyme with respect to molecular size, specific activity and kinetic properties, the lacZ fusion protein behaves differently. Being a tetramer like the wild-type enzyme, the specific activity of the purified fusion protein is lower than that of the native enzyme. In contrast to the wild-type enzyme the fusion fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase is not inhibited by excess substrate. Inhibition of the fusion protein by the most potent allosteric effectors of fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, AMP and fructose 2,6-bisphosphate, is weaker than observed with the wild-type enzyme. The fusion protein but not the wild-type enzyme was found to bind to immobilized Procion Navy H-ER. This was employed to purify the fusion fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase by affinity chromatography. Polyclonal antibodies raised in rabbits against the fusion enzyme were found to cross-react with the wild-type enzyme, but not with E. coli proteins. Both fructose-1,6-bisphosphatases complement the fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase mutant DF656 of E. coli.

Interactions of human alkaline phosphatase isoenzymes with triazine dyes using affinity partitioning, affinity chromatography and difference spectroscopy

Aqueous two-phase systems consisting of dextran, polyethylene glycol and dye-liganded polyethylene glycol were employed to investigate the affinity partitioning behaviour of isoenzymes of human alkaline phosphatase. Whereas in the system without a dye ligand the partition coefficients of the isoenzymes from human intestine and placenta were identical, the isoenzyme from human liver showed a significantly lower partition coefficient under the same conditions. After addition of dye-liganded polyethylene glycol two groups of dyes possessing substantial affinities to the isoenzymes were found. One, represented by Procion Yellow HE-3G, interacts specifically with the active centre of the isoenzymes. Differences in the affinity of the isoenzymes towards the individual dye ligands are caused only by the carbohydrate content, especially by the terminal sialic acid residues. The other group of dye ligands, represented by Procion Navy MX-RB, binds obviously in a more complex fashion involving other binding sites, which are only present in alkaline phosphatase of human liver. Procion Navy MX-RB was found to function as a suitable affinity ligand for the separation of human liver alkaline phosphatase from the other isoenzymes. Differences in the primary structure of two allelic forms of human placental alkaline phosphatase [(SS) and (F)] are not recognized in aqueous two-phase systems with or without dye-liganded polyethylene glycol.

Partial purification of d-glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from bakers' yeast by affinity partitioning using polymer-bound triazine dyes

d-Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase ( d-glucose-6-phosphate:NADP + 1-oxidoreductase EC 1.1.1.49) has been purified from bakers' yeast by liquid-liquid extraction using phase-restricted triazine dyes (Procion Yellow HE-3G, Procion Olive MX-3G, Procion Navy MX-RB and Cibacron Blue F3G-A). This method was combined with fractional precipitation with poly(ethylene) glycol) and batchwise treatment with DEAE-cellulose. This rapid procedure gave an enzyme preparation with a specific activity of 0.92 kat per kg protein within 5 h. The affinity extraction step can easily be scaled up and the good recovery of ligand-poly(ethylene glycol) should make the process useful for larger amounts of enzyme. The technical possibilities are discussed.

Single cell isolation: A way to examine network interactions

A procedure for isolating identified, small neurons from snail ganglia is described. The technique allows a particular neuron, previously identified by morphological and electrophysiological characteristics, to be marked and then isolated from the ganglia. This procedure was developed to permit the detailed comparison of the electrical characteristics of a neuron before and after isolation from an intact system. An earlier description has appeared. The cell somata is marked intracellularly by the iontophoretic injection of Procion navy blue H3RS which visually differentiates the cell from other cells in the ganglion. The ganglion is then treated with a trypsin-haluronidase solution to soften the ganglion sheath, which is then removed. The cells are gently shaken to isolate them from the ganglion and then examined electrophysiologically. A comparison of membrane properties, such as action potential height, duration and rate of rise and decay was made before and after all treatments were applied to assess deleterious effect. An analysis of network properties, such as burst duration, number of spikes per burst and presynaptic activity was also performed after each phase of the procedure. No significant differences were noted after dye injection, enzyme treatment, and where appropriate, after isolation. An increase in input resistance and corresponding decrease in the slope of the steady state current--voltage plot (I--V plot) were observed after isolation of a cell. These were expected results of removing the 'load' (i.e. axon or electrical coupling) from the cell soma. This method may be applied to many other systems to study the effects of network interactions on the properties of a single cell and should therefore facilitate the analysis of neuronal networks as well as single cell properties.

Effects of temperature on some membrane characteristics of carotid body cells.

Excised cat carotid bodies and nerves were placed in a Lucite chamber through which saline flowed at different temperatures. Action potentials were recorded with a suction electrode. Glomus cells were impaled with microelectrodes and identified by ejecting Procion navy blue from the micropipette. Membrane potentials (MP) averaged 20 mV and input resistances (R0), 40 Momega. Cooling induced depolarization and decreased R0. This effect had a reversal potential of about -6 mV. [K+]0 did not affect MP, R0, or cooling effects. Lack of sodium increased MP, R0, and depressed cooling effects. Low chloride had opposite effects. Ca2+ and Mg2+ influenced MP and R0 but had little effects on temperature actions. Ouabain decreased MP and R0. Results indicate that glomus cells are exquisitely sensitive to temperature changes; their MP and R0 increase with high temperatures and decrease when temperature is lowered. These effects are mostly dependent on the external concentration of Cl- and Na+. Glomus cells may be the site of the intense metabolism of this tissue and thus contribute to the generation of chemosensory impulses.

Procion Navy Blue in pulp and periapical studies

In an investigation of its value as a pulp-preserving medium, Procion Navy Blue was applied to the pulps of monkey teeth which had been exposed by an air-turbine drill. Evaluation of block sections of teeth and surrounding bone revealed that in all cases there was a severe inflammatory reaction in the pulp, which increased in severity with increases in observation time. Thus, Procion Navy Blue is not considered suitable for the treatment of exposed pulps.

Vital staining by Procion navy blue M3RS in laboratory mammals.

Procion navy blue M3RS, a reactive textile dye for cotton, was given orally and parenterally to rats, rabbits, and dogs in dosages ranging from 50 to 150 mg/kg body weight. With intravenous injection, the animals became bright blue almost instantly. Dense staining of connective tissues, which occurred within minutes, persisted to variable degrees for several months. All connective tissue structures and mucin-containing structures were stained but no cellular or intracellular staining was seen. The dye has instantaneous anticoagulant activity which can be reversed. An in vitro dye concentration of 2 mg/ml of plasma prolongs clotting time to infinity, apparently by interfering with polymerization of fibrinogen. Even though many of the animals had nonclottable blood, they showed no hemorrhagic manifestations and most of the animals showed no other evidence of acute or chronic intoxication of consequence. Procion blue may be useful in the study of collagen and other connective tissues; since it contains coppe...