Vegetable Oil Processing Research Articles

Internal exposure to heat-induced food contaminants in omnivores, vegans and strict raw food eaters: biomarkers of exposure to 2- and 3-monochloropropanediol (urinary excretion) and glycidol (hemoglobin adduct N-2,3-dihydroxypropyl-Val).

Fatty acid esters of 2/3-monochloropropanediol (2/3-MCPD) and glycidol are formed mainly during heat processing (deodorization) of vegetable oils, and are hydrolyzed by lipases in the gastrointestinal tract leading to the absorption of 2/3-MCPD and glycidol. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified 3-MCPD as possibly and glycidol as probably carcinogenic to humans. The aims of the current work were to clarify the exposure to 2/3-MCPD and glycidol associated with different dietary habits (omnivore, vegan, raw-food eating), and the exposure development between 2017 and 2021 in German study participants. The questions were addressed using the daily urinary excretion of 2/3-MCPD and the hemoglobin adduct N-(2,3-dihydroxypropyl)-Val (DHP-Val) formed from glycidol as biomarkers of exposure, which were determined in two dietary studies including 36 omnivores, 36 vegans and 16 strict raw food eaters (abstaining from any heated food for at least four months). The median urinary excretion of 2- and 3-MCPD in non-smoking omnivores and vegans was 0.87 and 1.35µg/day (2-MCPD), respectively, and 0.79 and 1.03µg/day (3-MCPD), respectively. The 2/3-MCPD concentrations in urine samples of raw food eaters were usually below the limit of detection. The median DHP-Val levels in non-smoking vegans and omnivores were 3.9pmol/g Hb each, and 1.9pmol/g Hb in raw food eaters. Between 2017 and 2021, the exposure to 3-MCPD and glycidol did not change, however, the median 2-MCPD excretion decreased (p = 0.02, omnivores and vegans combined). The correlation between daily excretions of 2/3-MCPD determined 4years apart was weak, whereas a moderate correlation was observed for DHP-Val (rS = 0.66) in this timeframe. In conclusion, the exposure to glycidol in omnivores and vegans was alike, whereas the 2/3-MCPD exposure was somewhat (albeit not significantly) higher in vegans. While 2/3-MCPD were hardly detectable in urine samples of raw food eaters, the median DHP-Val level (about 50% of those in omnivores) indicates a glycidol source independent of the dietary exposure.

Chloropropanols and Their Esters in Food: An Updated Review.

Chloropropanols, their fatty acid esters, and glycidol and its fatty acid esters (GEs) are process contaminants in foods that pose potential health risks. These contaminants typically arise during the deodorization process of vegetable oils, particularly in high concentrations within oils like palm oil and products derived from them, such as margarine, baked goods, pastries, and infant formula. Chloropropanol esters and GE can hydrolyze under the influence of lipases, forming chloropropanols. Elevated temperatures during food production can lead to the release of free 3-chloro-1,2-propanediol (3-MCPD) or free 2-chloro-1,3-propanediol (2-MCPD) in products containing both fat and salt. The exposure to these contaminants, especially for infants and young children, raises concerns about potential health hazards. While extensive research has focused on 3-MCPD, 2-MCPD, and GE, knowledge regarding other chloropropanols such as 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol (1,3-DCP), 2,3-dichloro-1-propanol (2,3-DCP), and their fatty acid esters remains limited. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview encompassing formation mechanisms, analysis methods, toxicological implications, occurrence patterns, exposure levels, mitigation strategies, and legislative considerations concerning these contaminants.

HEALTH RISKS FROM TOXIC CONTAMINANTS FORMED DURING THE PROCESSING OF VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS

The purpose of this review was to summarize current research findings and unify ideas regarding methods to reduce the health risks to consumers posed by toxic contaminants, such as chloropropanols, glycidols, and their esters, which are formed during food processing, particularly during the refining of vegetable oils and fats, thereby critically impacting food safety. The review describes various aspects related to the occurrence of foodborne toxicants, it covers hazard characterization, their formation mechanisms, and control and regulatory strategies developed in recent years by the World Health Organization, the European Union Commission, and the Food and Agriculture Organization. Additionally, it concludes with an analysis of factors that favor the formation of toxic contaminants in food and discusses some methods for mitigating and monitoring the concentrations of precursors in raw materials. The material is also addressed to researchers, nutritionists and specialists in the domestic food industry, who should pay more attention to the health risk posed by oil and fat processing contaminants and methods of their removal from the raw material.

Influence of cashew nut oil on the oxidative and thermal stability of para nut (Bertholletia excelsa) biodiesel

Brazil is a country with a high potential to produce renewable energy. The adequacy of the oily matter in transesterification contributes significantly to reduction and/or elimination of inconvenient substances contained in certain vegetable oils. It thus improves the quality and yield of biodiesel. This work aimed to investigate the oxidation and storage capacity of Para nut Biodiesel, properties that limit the use of this energy input. The thermogravimetric profile revealed that the Cashew nut liquid has thermal stability of around 237°C and oxidative resistance of 190°C. On the other hand, Para Nut Biodiesel showed considerable thermal and oxidation stability at approximately 200°C. Besides being an alternative to energy self-sufficiency, the processing of vegetable oils in Brazil can also generate employment and income opportunities and contribute to environmental preservation.

The effect of additives on the co-pelletization of sewage sludge and extraction residue on combustion behavior and off-gas emission reduction

Co-combustion of biomass and sludge is a promising method for waste treatment and power generation. In this study, additives such as ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP), calcium oxide (CaO), attapulgite (AT), and their combinations were added into the co-pelletization of semi-dry sludge (with approximately 50% water content) and extraction residue from vegetable oil processing. The objective of the studies was to examine the pelletization behavior, reduce off-gas emissions during the combustion, and investigate the mechanisms influenced by these additives through the thermogravimetric analysis and the tube furnace combustion experiment. The results of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated an increase in pellet density due to the addition of additives. During the combustion, the addition of AT and compound additives generated more complex compounds with high melting temperatures, thereby mitigating the high slagging tendency. Meanwhile, additives facilitated the conversion of ultrafine particles (PM0.1) to fine particles, leading to a reduction in PM0.1 emissions by 15.60–42.40%. The additives exhibited efficacy in reducing SO2 emissions, with a reduction range of 5.00–23.20%. However, the addition of ADP additives resulted in a 12.00% increase in NO emissions. Consequently, adding additives to pellets could address the slagging issue and reduce the emission of air pollutants during combustion.

ZSM-5@ceramic foam composite catalyst derived from spent bleaching clay for continuous pyrolysis of waste oil to produce monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Spent bleaching clay, a solid waste generated during the refining process of vegetable oils, lacks an efficient treatment solution. In this study, spent bleaching clay was innovatively employed to fabricate ceramic foams. The thermal stability analysis, microstructure, and crystal phase composition of the ceramic foams were characterized by TG-DSC, SEM, and XRD. An investigation into the influence of Al2O3 content on the ceramic foams was conducted. Results showed that, as the Al2O3 content increased from 15 wt% to 30 wt%, there was a noticeable decrease in bulk density and linear shrinkage, accompanied by an increase in compressive strength. Additionally, the ceramic foams were used as catalyst supports, to synthesize ZSM-5@ceramic foam composite catalysts for pyrolysis of waste oil. The open pores of the ZSCF catalyst not only reduced diffusion path length but also facilitated the exposure of more acid sites, thereby increasing the utilization efficiency of ZSM-5 zeolite. This, in turn, engendered a significant enhancement in monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons content from 39.15 % (ZSM-5 powder catalyst) to 78.96 %. Besides, a larger support pore size and a thicker ZSM-5 zeolite coating layer led to an increase in monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons content. As the time on stream was extended to 56 min, the monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbon content obtained with the composite catalyst remained 12.41 % higher than that of the ZSM-5 powder catalyst. These findings validate the potential of the composite catalyst. In essence, this study advances the utilization of spent bleaching clay and introduces a novel concept for ceramic foam fabrication. Furthermore, it contributes to the scaling up of catalytic pyrolysis technology.

Optimization and validation of an HPLC‐HRMS method through semipreparative HPLC system for determining phytosterol oxidation products during refining processing and storage of vegetable oils

AbstractA semi‐preparative liquid chromatographic system (LC‐Prep) has been used to isolate and collect the main oxidation products generated from β‐sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol, which represent the main sterols detected in vegetable oils. In less than 50 min, 15 different phytosterol oxidation products (POPs) were separated with a satisfactory resolution (R >1) and collected. From each pure phytosterol standard the 5,6α‐epoxy (α‐E), 5,6β‐epoxy (β‐E), 7‐keto (7‐K), 7α‐hydroxy (7α‐H), and 7β‐hydroxy (7β‐H) isomers were obtained. The purity of POPs was >90%. Then, the obtained pure POPs were used to validate an HPLC‐Orbitrap‐HRMS analytical method. The LOD and LOQ determined in medium chain triacylglycerols were >0.012 and >0.039 ng/mL, respectively; whereas the recoveries ranged between 82% and 98%. The suitability of the analytical method was evaluated on palm oil (PO), palm olein (POL), and high oleic sunflower oil (HOSO) during the whole refining processing (crude oil, neutralization and degumming, bleaching and deodorization) and under storage conditions (45°C, 16 days). In the refining steps, the total POPs content significantly increased (p < 0.05) by 29%, 20%, and 13% in PO, POL, and HOSO, respectively. The highest amount was found in HOSO (15.046 mg/kg), followed by POL (1.067 mg/kg) and PO (0.538 mg/kg). Under storage conditions, the content of POPs did not significantly (p > 0.05) change and was lower than 8.965 mg/kg. The developed semi‐preparative liquid chromatographic system coupled to the LC‐Orbitrap‐HRMS method demonstrated to be a useful and valid tool for a robust, precise, accurate, and sensitive determination of POPs in refined and stored vegetable oils.

Technology for obtaining a domestic catalyst for hydrogenation of vegetable oils

Vegetable oils are obtained from oil-containing sunflower seeds, burdock, flax, rapeseed, corn, soybeans, etc. The composition of vegetable oils contains esters (triglycerides) of fatty acids with varying degrees of unsaturation. One of the main processes of vegetable oil processing is the hydrogenation process. Hydrogenation of vegetable oils is a widespread technological process of obtaining raw materials for the production of confectionery fats, detergents, soaps, stearin and other products. It is the hydrogenation of vegetable oils that is of great importance, because it increases the volume of food production. Catalysts for hydrogenation of vegetable oils are not produced in Russia. The volume of the import market is about 250 tons per year. The development and production of domestic catalysts is a priority task in solving import substitution problems. The paper suggests the most environmentally friendly and economical way to obtain catalysts of various chemical compositions is the method through an ammonia-carbonate complex. The results of reserve tests of the developed samples of nickel catalyst for hydrogenation of vegetable oils, as well as the conclusion of potential consumers are presented.

The Effect of Ozone Dosage of Sunflower and Olive Oils on Their Biological Activities and Chemical Properties

ABSTRACT The ozonation process of vegetable oils is commonly monitored by peroxide value (PV). However, PV methodology has been adapted from vegetable oils, with protocol divergences. In addition, few studies are based on the minimum level of ozonation to ensure biological activity. This study aimed to optimize the PV methodology for sunflower oil with different ozone dosage aiming to discriminate these samples. Also, to establish the relationship between its physicochemical properties with the biological activity. The optimized PV method was also applied to ozonated olive oil, as well as the other analytical techniques of iodine value (IV), acidity value (AV), density, viscosity, gas chromatography, infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetry (DSC and TG). The PV method discriminated the ozonation level of the samples. Both ozonated sunflower and olive oils need to reach an intermediary ozone dosage to perform the in vitro bactericidal and fungicidal activity (MIC ≤2.5%), and anti-inflammatory activity (inhibition of nitric oxide release in Raw cells). These results point to the importance of standardizing the ozone dosage for each oil and the analytical methodologies used in its characterization.

Development of bio lubricant from castor oil via chemical softening: An ease towards sustainable substitute

In the 21st century, Environment sustainability is considered to be the superficial,coherent vision in the development of a societal goal. At the moment, the prices of crude oil have been skyrocketing which results into the depletion of petroleum reservoirs contributing to environmental pollution cum hazards. This has inspired researchers globally in the development of non-toxic, renewable, and sustainable. ecologically sound alternative i.e., Bio-lubricant which will aim to replace conventional petroleum-based lubricants towards a green and clean society deliberately. The proposed work introduces the design and development of biodegradable bio-lubricant from commercially available, non-edible castor oil via chemical softening by the virtue of two successive transesterification stages. The presented study, explores the chemical modification process of vegetable oil to intensify the yield, grade, and physicochemical vis-a-vis tribological properties of the produced lubricant. The proposed method of production of castor oil-based bio-lubricant via chemical softening is made to achieve a high yield i.e., exceeding 97.4 % with a kinetic investigation for optimized parameters including catalyst concentration, alcohol/oil ratio, temperature, additives calibrated to be 1% w/w NaOH, 6:1, 65 °C and 15% SLS (Sodium lauryl sulfate) respectively for the maximum conversion with minimum costs associated with the production of ecologically viable castor oil-based bio-lubricant. The peaks observed at 1730 cm−1 and 3025 cm−1 are associated with the stretching vibration of the carbonyl group (C = O) in the ester bond and the stretching of the C–H bond vibration in the fatty acid chains, respectively. This has been confirmed through Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and evaluated through ASTM analyses.

Property Improvements of Silica-Filled Styrene Butadiene Rubber/Butadiene Rubber Blend Incorporated with Fatty-Acid-Containing Palm Oil.

Using vegetable oils as a plasticizer or processing aid in green rubber products is becoming popular due to environmental concerns. However, differences in vegetable oil processing result in varying amounts of low-molecular-weight (low-MW) free fatty acids (FFAs) in their composition, which range from 2% to 30%. This research investigated how the properties of silica-filled styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) and butadiene rubber (BR) blends were affected by the presence of FFAs in palm oil (PO). The rubber compounds containing a 70/30 SBR/BR blend, 30 phr of silica, and 2 phr of bis-(3-triethoxysilylpropyl) tetrasulfide (TESPT), and the vulcanizing agents were prepared and tested. The PO content was kept constant at 20 phr, while the number of FFAs, i.e., lauric acid (LA), palmitic acid (PA), and oleic acid (OA), in PO varied from 10-30%. The viscosity, dynamic mechanical properties, morphology, cure characteristics, and mechanical properties of the rubber blend were then measured. Regardless of the FFA types, increasing FFA content in PO decreased scorch time, cure time, minimum torque, and viscosity. As the FFA content increased, the torque difference and crosslink density also increased, which led to higher hardness, modulus, tensile strength, and abrasion resistance. The FFA types had a slight effect on the vulcanizate properties, even though LA showed slightly better mechanical properties than PA and OA. The results reveal that FFAs in PO not only improve processability but also function as a co-activator in silica-filled sulfur-vulcanized SBR/BR blend compounds.

Studies on the Quality Indices of Processing of Edible Vegetable Oils

Studies on the Quality Indices of Processing of Edible Vegetable Oils

Single cell protein and oil production from solid cocoa fatty acid distillates co-fed ethanol

The use of solid lipid sidestreams have been overlooked as a feedstock for the production of microbial biomass for food and feed applications and little to no recent work has examined the utilization of solid fatty acid distillates (FADs), which are a significant residue from vegetable oil processing. Yarrowia lipolytica and Rhodosporidium toruloides cultivated on cocoa fatty acid distillates (CFAD) generated final cell dry weight values > 40 g/L, with strong productivity (3.3 g/L·h) and rich protein (>45%) and lipid content (>25%). Interestingly, microbial oils were > 65% unsaturated fatty acids, compared < 20% unsaturated content in FAD. Importantly, to overcome mass-transfer limitations associated with bioconversion of solid lipid residues, ethanol was applied as a co-substrate to solubilize FAD residues. Here, FAD residues from cocoa deodorization have been demonstrated to be high energy feedstocks that represent an attractive substrate for the production of both single cell protein and oil (SCPO).

Effects of different degumming processes on the molecular species and microstructures of phospholipids recovered from crude vegetable oils

Phospholipids (PLs), as natural additives and nutritional supplements, are recovered from the gum phase during the degumming process of crude vegetable oils. The molecular species of phospholipids recovered from crude soybean (SO), flaxseed (FO) and peanut oil (PO) by different degumming processes, including water (WD), acid (AD), PLA1(EDA), PLC (EDC) and PLA1-PLC (EDAC) were investigated. According to the PLS-DA model, a total of 30, 38 and 21 characteristic markers were identified using UPLC-Q-TOF-MS in the phospholipids recovered from SO, FO and PO by different degumming processes, respectively. PC (18:2/18:2) and PE (18:2/18:2) were the main phospholipids for WD and AD, LPC (18:2) and LPE (18:2) were the main phospholipids for EDA and EDAC, and PI (16:0/18:2) and PI (16:0/18:1) were served as characteristic phospholipids for EDC. In addition, a lamellar liquid-crystalline phase was observed in the recovered phospholipids, which indicated that the microstructure of phospholipids recovered from crude vegetable oils were significantly influenced by different degumming processes. These differential molecular species of phospholipid products provide useful information to facilitate the potential utilization of phospholipid products as emulsifiers in food and as ingredients in the pharmaceutical industries.

Features of removal of coloring substances during bleaching vegetable oils

In modern conditions of vegetable oil processing, the issues of improving the quality and safety of refined oils remain relevant. It has been noted that the most effective one is complex or complete refining of vegetable oils, which ensures the removal of the main groups of related substances by traditional and improved methods. The complexity of the organization of refining technology is associated with the accompanying oxidation of oils at certain stages and a decrease in their resistance to oxidation during storage. Moreover, this is most characteristic of the time-consuming operation of adsorption bleaching when using acidactivated mineral adsorbents containing active metals that contribute to the activation of oxidative processes. A new approach to the organization of the technology of removing coloring substances during bleaching involves the use of a «wet» method of clarification of hydrated wet oil. This technology helps to reduce the oxidation of bleached oil at a high level of clarification. The effectiveness of the method is increased due to the use of a mixture of mineral and vegetable adsorbents, the bleaching ability of which is enhanced by the use of mechanochemical activation (MHA). It has been noted that a plant adsorbent obtained from dried crushed pea leaves containing pectin and hemicellulose is effective. MHA contributes to the complex effect on the treated system due to local pressures and shear deformations, which activate the adsorption properties of the modified mineral-vegetable adsorbent and increases its selective effect. The proposed technology using a mixture of sorbents and MHA increases the resistance of oil to oxidation and reduces the accumulation of oxidation products in it during storage, it improves the quality of bleached oil, which should provide a high effect of the final stage of complete refining – deodorization.

Valorization of sustainable vegetable oil deodorizer distillate as a novel fatliquor

The deodorizer distillate (DD) is a byproduct of vegetable oil processing industry and is rich in functional bioactive components. This study aimed to employ phosphorylation modification for DD to produce a new sustainable fatliquor. The bioactive ingredients in DD, namely fatty acids, sterols, and tocopherols, were determined by using HPLC and GLC. The results revealed that the DD sample contained a high percentage of unsaturated fatty acids (72.3%) and high levels of γ and δ-tocopherols (54.8% and 31.60%, respectively). Mechanical parameters (tensile strength, elongation at break, and tear strength) of leather were improved after being treated with the prepared fatliquor emulsion. Eventually, SEM showed that the texture of the fatliquored leather had been remarkably enhanced. Moreover, the fatliquored leather possessed effective antibacterial effect against the specified +ve, −ve bacteria, and Candida albicans microorganisms. The strength, fullness, soft handle, and elasticity of leather were all improved, and the grain of leather was protected from becoming loose after drying.Graphical

Developing radio frequency pretreatment technology for improving yield and quality of flaxseed oil extractions

Flaxseed is considered as a major raw material for producing functional vegetable oil. To promote the extraction process of flaxseed oil, effects of radio frequency (RF) pretreatment at investigated temperatures (70, 90, 110, 130, and 150 °C) on yield, physicochemical property and sensory quality of flaxseed oil were determined. The results showed that the yield of flaxseed oil increased from 31.29 to 38.23% after RF pretreatment at 150 °C (p < 0.05). The total phenolic, lignan, antioxidant capacity, chlorophyll, and carotenoid contents of flaxseed oil increased significantly with the increase of RF pretreatment temperature (p < 0.05). Nonetheless, the higher RF pretreatment temperatures caused a slight increase on oil oxidation indices (free fatty acid, peroxide value, conjugated diene, conjugated trienes, and p-anisidine value). These results provide theoretical guidance for practical applications of RF pretreatment in the production and processing of edible vegetable oil.

Application of molecular distillation in the recovery of high-value bioactive compounds present in wastes of vegetable oil processing: effect of esterification

Refining vegetable oils generate residues that can be reused to obtain high-value compounds. Tocopherols, phytosterols, and squalene can be recovered from deodorizer distillates using molecular distillation. However, treatment of the deodorizer distillates is required to obtain better separation results. Thus, this work aimed to evaluate the effect of the esterification of a residue composed of mixtures of different types of deodorizer distillates on the efficiency of phytonutrient recovery by molecular distillation. The results showed the best conditions for the esterification were 74 °C, 214 min, 3% H2SO4, and 2:1 molar methanol/free fatty acids ratio. These reaction conditions maintained 97% of total phytonutrients and reduced 90.5% of free fatty acids. Concentration gains for tocopherols (331%), phytosterols (232%), and squalene (300%) were obtained for the esterified residue. Therefore, this work presents an alternative route to obtaining a phytonutrient concentrate by combining steps of esterification and molecular distillation for mixtures of deodorizer distillates.

Experimental investigation of elastomer compatibility and engine performance of biodiesel derived from deodorizer distillate

Deodorizer distillate is the primary waste product of the processing of vegetable oils. A two-step process, involving esterification and transesterification, was carried out on the deodorizer distillate to convert it into biodiesel. The properties of the produced biodiesel were measured and found to be comparable with diesel. The current study includes the compatibility of elastomers and the engine performance of biodiesel. The first section discusses the stability and degradation of several automotive elastomers with biodiesel according to Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standards. This study (as per SAE J1748) presents the degrading behavior of automotive elastomers with biodiesel using a different scientific technique. A static immersion test was conducted to study the degradation behavior of the elastomers when immersed in conventional diesel and biodiesel as per the standards mentioned above. The results show the stability and degradability of six different types of elastomers when used with biodiesel. Viton and neoprene showed more degradation in biodiesel and diesel than other elastomers. Nitrile butadine rubber (NBR) showed about 715% elongation for diesel and 703% elongation for biodiesel, while polyvinyl chloride (PVC) alone showed an increase in tensile strength of 7.63% and 15.2% for diesel and biodiesel, respectively. Regarding combustion and emissions performance, the biodiesel showed satisfactory results.

Получение компонентов моторных топлив переработкой смесей прямогонной дизельной фракции и подсолнечного масла на цеолитном катализаторе

The development of processes for the co-processing of vegetable oils and petroleum hydrocarbons, the purpose of which is to production components of motor-fuels, is an important direction in the development of the fuel and energy industry. An important stage in the planning and implementation of such processes is the selection of a catalyst. Recently, zeolites of various structures and modifications have become very popular as catalysts. In this work, processing on a zeolite catalyst of the ZSM-5 type of a straight-run diesel fraction and a blend of a diesel fraction with 50% vol. sunflower oil, were implementation. Regularities of the effect of sunflower oil involvement in processing on a zeolite catalyst on the composition and properties of the obtained products are revealed. It has been established that the products of joint processing of sunflower oil and straight-run diesel fraction on a zeolite catalyst meet to the arctic brand of diesel fuel in terms of low-temperature properties. It is shown that the obtained product of processing on zeolite is a promising blending component for the production of low-freezing diesel fuels. The received results indicate the feasibility of joint processing of vegetable oils and straight-run diesel fractions on zeolite catalysts. The involvement of vegetable oils in processing will expand the pool of feedstock for the production of motor-fuel components.