Flour Processing Research Articles

Effect of sulfur and potassium foliar applications on wheat grain protein quality

ContextThe effects of sulfur and potassium fertilizers on wheat yield and quality have been well studied, but most of them are used as basal fertilizers. However, the root system is senescent at the later stages of wheat growth and cannot absorb sufficient sulfur and potassium fertilizers plant needed. It is still unclear whether sulfur and potassium foliar applications at the later stages can affect wheat yield and quality. ObjectiveThis experiment was conducted to investigate the changes of sulfur and potassium accumulation and transport, protein synthesis and flour processing quality after foliar application of sulfur and potassium fertilizers, transport and the relating physiological mechanisms. MethodsIn 2020–2021 and 2021–2022, a three-factor split plot experiment was carried out in the middle and lower reaches of Yangtze River, with wheat variety, concentration of sulfur fertilizer and potassium fertilizer served as main factor, subfactor and sub-subfactor respectively. ResultsIn the study from 2020 to 2022, the albumin protein content of both varieties decreased in the nutrient spraying treatment, particularly in the high potassium level. However, there was no significant effect on the globulin content. Moreover, the gliadin protein content decreased in the sulfur spraying treatment alone, but significantly increased the wheat gluten content, and thereby the total protein content. We also found significant genotypic differences in the composition and content of high molecular weight wheat glutenin subunits (HMW-GS) between the two varieties. The foliar spraying of sulfur and potassium fertilizers significantly increased the content of subunits 1 and 8 in Yangmai (YM15) and subunits 7 and 12 in Yangmai (YM16), and the effect of mixed spraying was better than single-nutrient spraying, especially the amount of 0.2 % sulfur and 0.3 % potassium fertilizer treatment. ConclusionsThe superimposed effect of sulfur and potassium effectively increased the total protein content by promoting the accumulation of sulfur in transit to the seeds, increasing the substrate supply level, and enhancing enzyme activity. Although sulfur and potassium combination can improve the grain protein quality and flour processing quality, too high spraying concentrations can decrease the flour processing quality. ImplicationsSpraying the appropriate amount of 0.2 % sulfur and 0.3 % potassium fertilizer can serve as an optimization measure for high-quality and efficient production of different types of wheat varieties.

World practice of wheat flour classification

The paper presents a review of wheat classification accepted in various countries — producers of wheat and products of its processing (USA, Canada, Italy, France, Germany, China and others). Much attention is given to differences in the classification systems. Criteria for assigning wheat to certain classes based on physical and chemical properties of grain are examined. Differences in wheat classification by types, including morphological features and merits of grain such as size, color and gluten content, are highlighted. The authors discuss specific requirements and norms of wheat quality dictated by the regulatory authorities and requirements of the market of each country such as the mass fraction of moisture, content of impurities, density of grain and others. Based on the analysis of wheat classification in various world countries, it has been concluded that it is necessary to establish unified and generally accepted systems of wheat classification. This will allow simplifying international grain trade, make the market more transparent, strengthen trust between exporting and importing countries and will also facilitate the development of the international cooperation in the sphere of production and processing of wheat flour. Despite the wide assortment of flour confectionery products on the Russian market, baker’s flour of general purpose is mainly produced in the country. Its specific feature is a high content of flour from hard wheat varieties that are distinguished by higher protein content, strong gluten and large particle size. By its properties, this flour is not suitable for production of most flour confectionery products. Flour confectionery products produced from it are significantly inferior to import analogues in terms of their quality characteristics, which reduces their competitiveness. This dictates the need for the development of a standard for flour intended for production of confectionery products, which will include physico-chemical indicators for various flour types with consideration for their purpose.

Performance Analysis of Disc Mill Type FFC-15 Grinder for Making Charcoal Husk Flour

This study is motivated by the great potential of rice husk as a waste material that has not yet been optimally utilized. The focus of this research is to evaluate the performance of the FFC-15 disc mill machine in producing flour from rice husk charcoal at three different moisture contents. The variations in the moisture content of rice husk charcoal studied were 10%, 15%, and 20%, with the goal of determining the optimal conditions in the production process of rice husk charcoal flour. The methodology used is experimental with repeated testing to produce data on machine capacity, electrical power consumption, flour yield, flour quality (moisture content, ash content, and mineral content), and the physical parameters of the charcoal. The results show that moisture content significantly affects the milling efficiency and quality of the flour produced, with optimal conditions achieved at a moisture content of 10%. Adjusting the moisture content before the milling process can enhance the operational efficiency of the machine and the quality of the final product. These findings are expected to provide benefits for follow-up by a group or industry that wants to optimize the utilization of rice husk charcoal. Keywords: Disc mill FFC-15, Flour quality, Husk charcoal, Milling efficiency, Moisture content.

Processing of Milkfish and Moringa Flour as Alternative Superfoods for Handling Stunting in Bone Regency

Stunting has a big influence on children's growth and development, both motoric and verbal development. Stunting can be prevented by fulfilling quality energy intake. Modification of additional food for toddlers by using local food through a touch of technology is the strategy offered in this research. This study aims to evaluate the effect of fortification of Moringa leaf flour in milkfish crackers on organoleptic characteristics, including color, aroma, texture and taste. The cracker samples were fortified with Moringa leaf flour at concentrations of 0%, 2.5%, 5% and 7.5%. The assessment is carried out by panelists who provide scores for each parameter. The results showed that fortification up to 2.5% did not affect color and aroma, and improved texture, but reduced taste acceptability. Fortification at levels of 5% and 7.5% reduced the acceptability of taste and color although the texture remained good.

Aqueous ozone effects on wheat gluten: Yield, structure, and rheology.

This study investigates the impact of aqueous ozone (AO) on the yield, molecular structure, and rheological properties of wheat gluten separated using the batter procedure. Employing strong gluten flour (SGF) and weak gluten flour (WGF), we demonstrate that AO pretreatment significantly enhances the yield and purity of separated starch and gluten. Surface hydrophobicity, free sulfhydryl groups, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman, and size exclusion-high-performance liquid chromatography (SE-HPLC) analyses were used to evaluate the effects of AO on the molecular structure of gluten. Our analysis reveals that low concentrations of AO induce specific modifications in gluten proteins. AO treatment increases cross-linking in glutenin macropolymer (GMP), reduces surface hydrophobicity, and stabilizes secondary and tertiary structures. These changes include an increase in β-sheet content by approximately 9% and a corresponding decrease in β-turn structures, leading to enhanced viscoelastic properties of the gluten. The research highlights AO's potential as a sustainable and efficient agent in wheat flour processing, offering advancements in both product quality and eco-friendly processing techniques. Future research should optimize AO treatment parameters and explore its effects on different cereal types further to enhance its applicability and benefits in food processing. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Our work substantially advances the existing knowledge on wheat flour processing by demonstrating the multifaceted benefits of AO pretreatment. We unveil significant improvements in the yield and purity of starch and gluten when compared to conventional separation methods. Moreover, our in-depth analysis of molecular changes induced by AO, including increased cross-linking, alterations in surface hydrophobicity, and modifications in glutenin macropolymer content, provides new insights into how AO affects the viscoelastic properties of gluten. This contribution is pivotal for the development of more efficient, sustainable, and eco-friendly wheat flour processing technologies.

Action of microbial transglutaminase (MTGase) on the processing properties of glutinous rice flour and the quality attributes of sweet dumplings and in vitro digestion

The development and manufacture of high-quality starch are a new research focus in food science. Here, transglutaminase was used in the wet processing of glutinous rice flour to prepare customized sweet dumplings. Transglutaminase (0.2 %) lowered protein loss in wet processing and reduced the crystallinity and viscosity of glutinous rice flour. Moreover, it lowered the cracking and cooking loss of sweet dumplings after freeze–thaw cycles, and produced sweet dumplings with reduced hardness and viscosity, making them more suitable for people with swallowing difficulties. Additionally, in sweet dumplings with 0.2 % transglutaminase, the encapsulation of starch granules by the protein slowed down the digestion and reduced the final hydrolysis rate, which are beneficial for people with weight and glycemic control issues. In conclusion, this study contributes to the production of tasty, customized sweet dumplings.

Effect of wheat flour particle size on the quality deterioration of quick-frozen dumpling wrappers during freeze-thawed cycles

To reveal the effect of wheat flour particle size on the quality deterioration of quick-frozen dumpling wrappers (QFDW) during freeze-thawed (F/T) cycles, the components and physicochemical properties of wheat flours with five different particle sizes were determined and compared, along with the changes in texture and sensory properties, water status, and microstructure of QFDW during F/T cycles. Results showed that as particle size decreased, the damaged starch content and B-type starch content increased, the water absorption increased, and the gluten strength decreased. Furthermore, F/T cycles negatively impacted the quality of QFDW, evidenced by decreased texture properties and sensory evaluation score, water redistribution, higher freezable water content, and disruption of gluten network. Notably, QFDW made from larger particle size wheat flours required the shortest duration when traversing the maximum ice crystal formation zone. The QFDW made from larger particle size wheat flours formed a more stable starch-gluten matrix, which resisted the damage caused by ice recrystallization, demonstrating better water binding capacity and F/T resistance. The results may provide theoretical guidance for the study of QFDW quality and the moderate processing of wheat flour in actual production.

The fate of Alternaria toxin tenuazonic acid (TeA) during the processing chain of wheat flour products and risk control strategies for mycotoxins

The fate of Alternaria toxin tenuazonic acid (TeA) during the processing chain of wheat flour products was systemically evaluated. TeA was analyzed by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) in wheat grains and the corresponding wheat flour products produced throughout the whole chain. The results indicated that TeA contamination in wheat grains largely determines the level of TeA toxin present in byproducts, semi-finished products, and finished products of the processing of four types of simulated processed wheat flour products (e.g., dry noodles, steamed breads, baked breads, and biscuits). The different food processing techniques had different effects on the fate of TeA. Wheat flour processing can reduce the TeA content in wheat grains by 58.7–83.2 %, indicating that wheat flour processing is a key step in reducing the TeA content in the food chain. Among the four types of wheat flour products, the decreases in TeA content in biscuits (69.8–76.7 %) were greater than those in dry noodles (15.5–22.3 %) and steamed breads (24.9–43.6 %). In addition, the decreasing effect of TeA was especially obvious in the wheat flour product chain with a high level of contamination. The processing factors (PFs) for TeA were as low as 0.20 for the four wheat processing methods and as high as 1.24 for the dry noodle processing method. At the average and 95th percentiles, dietary exposure to TeA in Chinese consumers including infants and young children did not exceed the relevant threshold value of toxicological concern (TTC) of TeA (1.5 µg/kg body weight per day), indicating an acceptable health risk for Chinese consumers via wheat flour products. These findings provide new insight into the fate of TeA in the food chain and mycotoxin control on the safety of wheat flour products and public health.

The multifactorial phenomenon of enzymatic hydrolysis resistance in unripe banana flour and its starch: A concise review.

Unripe banana flour starch possesses a high degree of resistance to enzymatic hydrolysis, a unique and desirable property that could be exploited in the development of functional food products to regulate blood sugar levels and promote digestive health. However, due to a multifactorial phenomenon in the banana flour matrix-from the molecular to the micro level-there is no consensus regarding the complex mechanisms behind the slow enzymatic hydrolysis of unripe banana flour starch. This work therefore explores factors that influence the enzymatic hydrolysis resistance of raw and modified banana flour and its starch including the proportion and distribution of the amorphous and crystalline phases of the starch granules; granule morphology; amylose-amylopectin ratio; as well as the presence of nonstarch components such as proteins, lipids, and phenolic compounds. Our findings revealed that the relative contributions of these factors to banana starch hydrolytic resistance are apparently dependent on the native or processed state of the starch as well as the cultivar type. The interrelatability of these factors in ensuring amylolytic resistance of unripe banana flour starch was further highlighted as another reason for the multifactorial phenomenon. Knowledge of these factors and their contributions to enzymatic hydrolysis resistance individually and interconnectedly will provide insights into enhanced ways of extraction, processing, and utilization of unripe banana flour and its starch.

Training on Making Karamunting Flour as an Effort to Increase Entrepreneurial Knowledge of Learning Community Center Participants

Central Kalimantan has very high biodiversity in terms of animal and plant diversity. Carmunting (Melastoma malabatrhicum) is a typical plant in Central Kalimantan. This community service activity aims to provide students with entrepreneurial knowledge related to Karamunting flour processing at the Harati Community Learning Activity Center, East Kotawaringin, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. The training material provided included the benefits of caramunting fruit, selecting caramunting fruit that can be used as a flour product, how to process caramunting fruit and product marketing techniques for 20 residents studying at the Harati Community Learning Activity Center. This training material was delivered during two meetings in August 2023 using lecture and demonstration methods. The results of this community service activity show an increase in the knowledge of learning residents from 30% to 82% about processing caramunting and correct marketing techniques.

Application of hazard analysis and critical control points technique in a cassava flour processing unit

Application of hazard analysis and critical control points technique in a cassava flour processing unit

Physicochemical properties of wheat granular flour and quality characteristics of the corresponding fresh noodles as affected by particle size

Wheat granular flour (GF) is highly nutritious due to low machining precision but the large particle size leads to poor processability. By reducing the particle size from 224 μm to 62 μm without sifting in the present study, flour chemical compositions, dough rheology, and fresh noodle qualities were tracked, and the underlying mechanism was preliminarily explored through the changes in corresponding dough's gluten quality, water–solid interaction, and microstructures. Results indicated that only moisture significantly decreased and damaged starch signally increased with the reduction in particle size. Compared with refined flour, all the GF samples had higher ash, dietary fiber, beneficial lipids, and intact endosperm cells. Noticeably, the GF samples with particle size from 91 μm to 68 μm developed higher gluten quality and quantity, stronger water-solids interplay, and optimal gluten networks; therefore, the resultant doughs displayed a super balance between viscosity and elasticity. Accordingly, the noodles possessed excellent consumer acceptability with higher water absorption, lower cooking loss, and higher smoothness and chewiness after optimum cooking. These observations provide a theoretical basis for wheat flour processing and the development of healthier wheat-based noodles using the GF as raw material.

Ethanol distillation performance test of porang flour processing residue in SME scale distillator

Abstract One of the porang processing steps involves the production of porang flour with glucomannan concentrations that meet market requirements. To increase glucomannan levels, impurities are separated. The common solvent used is ethanol. In the extraction procedure, ethanol is not only used once but reused in another extraction procedure by redistilled to increase the concentration of ethanol. This study’s objective is to determine and analyze the effect of input volume variations (5,7.5 and 10 liters) at heating temperatures (85°C, 90°C, and 95°C) on ethanol product volume and concentration. In the distillation process 5; 7.5 and 10 L, ethanol levels respectively in the range of 58.41-71.87%, 61.81-65.87, and 63.76-65.93%. Based on the analysis, the constant value (k) in the change of ethanol distillation level during the distillation process predicted at 5L volume were 0.0149, 0.0160, and 0.0182, for 7.5L volume were 0.0098, 0.0134, and 0.0153, 0.0071, 0.0083, and 0.0102 minutes−1 at 10 L sample volume for each distillation temperature. The optimal values for a distillation device evaluated on a Small Medium Enterprises (SME) scale by varying the volume and temperature of the substance in the distillation vessel were determined to be 5 liters of volume and 95°C, respectively.

DEVELOPING COMBINED PROCESSING OF CASSAVA INTO MODIFIED CASSAVA FLOUR AND TAPIOCA (MOCAFTAP) AND PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE MOCAFTAP PRODUCTS

Modified cassava flour (Mocaf) processing by fermentation produces liquid waste, which is expected to be a potential starch source. This study aims to show starch yield and physicochemical characteristics by advancing the waste from a single mocaf processing flow used in a small-scale industry using cassava var. Gajah to a new double processing flow called MocafTap (mocaf tapioca). Mocaf and starch yields were 18.15% and 4.20%, respectively. The starch yield is insignificantly different (p > 0.05) from the starch processed from fermented cassava. The starch meets the National Indonesian Standard for water content and carbohydrates but not ash and fibre content, which are significantly higher (p < 0.05). The physical characteristics of starch are insignificantly different (p > 0.05) from the starch of fermented cassava, i.e., bulk density 0.49 g/mL, wettability 10.39 second, water absorption capacity 0.87 g/g, oil absorption capacity 2.82 g/g, swelling power 23.41 g/g, solubility 23.33% db, and gelatinisation temperature 72.10 C. The cassava var. Gajah is unsuitable for mocaf production due to its low yield; however, considering the large yield (120 tonnes/ha) and the possibility of introducing a new processing line (MocafTap), the cassava var. Gajah still has potential as a candidate for mocaf production.

Recent Trends in the Pre-Drying, Drying, and Post-Drying Processes for Cassava Tuber: A Review.

Cassava tuber is an essential staple crop in tropical regions with versatile applications in the food, feed, and industrial sectors. However, its high moisture content and perishable nature necessitate efficient preservation methods to extend its shelf life and enhance its value. Pre-drying, drying, and post-drying processes play pivotal roles in maintaining the quality and usability of cassava products. This review comprehensively examines the current status and future directions in the pre-drying, drying, and post-drying processes of cassava tuber. Various pre-drying or pretreatment methods and drying techniques are evaluated for their impacts on drying kinetics and product quality. Additionally, challenges and limitations in achieving high-quality processing of cassava flour are identified. Future directions in cassava drying methods emphasize the integration of combined pre-drying and drying techniques to optimize resource utilization and processing efficiency. Furthermore, the adoption of advanced online measurement and control technologies in drying equipment is highlighted for real-time monitoring and optimization of drying parameters. The importance of optimizing existing processes to establish a comprehensive cassava industrial chain and foster the development of the cassava deep-processing industry is emphasized. This review provides valuable insights into the current trends and future prospects in cassava drying technologies, aiming to facilitate sustainable and efficient utilization of cassava resources for various applications.

Challenges to Increasing Dietary Fiber in White Flour and Bread.

Increasing the intake of dietary fiber from staple foods is a key strategy to improve the health of consumers. White bread is an attractive vehicle to deliver increased fiber as it is widely consumed and available to all socio-economic groups. However, fiber only accounts for about 4% of the dry weight of white flour and bread compared to 10-15% in whole grain bread and flour. We therefore discuss the challenges and barriers to developing and exploiting new types of wheat with high fiber content in white flour. These include defining and quantifying individual fiber components and understanding how they are affected by genetic and environmental factors. Rapid high throughput assays suitable for determining fiber content during plant breeding and in grain-utilizing industries are urgently required, while the impact of fiber amount and composition on flour processing quality needs to be understood. Overcoming these challenges should have significant effects on human health.

The Effect of Sodium Tripolyphosphate and Guar Gum on Physical Characteristics of Analog Rice from Gaplek Flour

Gaplek flour is a processed product of cassava preservation abundant during the harvest season in Lampung Province. The high carbohydrate content in cassava facilitates the processing of gaplek flour into carbohydraterich food source, such as analog rice. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect of adding STPP and guar gum on the formulation of analog rice made from 70% gaplek flour and 30% corn flour. Analog rice was produced using the extrusion method with a twin-screw extruder. The results showed that the addition of STPP did not affect water absorption characteristics. The solubility of rice in deep water also decreased with increasing amounts of STPP and guar gum. Meanwhile, guar gum significantly increased water absorption and reduced the solubility of rice in water. The degree of gelatinization decreased with the addition of both materials. The addition of 0.3-0.5% STPP and 0.5-2% guar gum had no significant effect on hardness, stickiness, elasticity, and cohesiveness of analog rice prepared using a cooker.

Technical-technology aspect and financial analysis of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L) flour processing agroindustry in Lampung province

Lampung Province is one of the Sumatra archipelago's fifth sweet potato-producing provinces. To provide added value and encourage the growth of agro-industry in Lampung Province, the development of sweet potato flour processing is needed. This study aims to determine the business feasibility of sweet potato flour in Lampung Province from raw materials, technical technology, and financial aspects. The research involved agencies and related institutions in Lampung Province and Lampung Tengah Regency. The research method used was a survey and interview method. The data obtained were analyzed in stages using the Exponential Comparison Method (ECM) and business feasibility analysis. The finding showed that the SP flour agro-industry is feasible to be established with a capacity of 4 tons of fresh SP as raw material in Way Pengubuan, Lampung Tengah District, Lampung Province. The project needs an initial investment capital of 3.36 billion and an annual operational capital of 14.44 billion. The project is projected to yield an NPV value of IDR. 1,320,768,285 over a 10-year business projection period, with an IRR of 21%, Net B/C of 1.11, and a PBP of 4 years and 17 days.

Impacts of transglutaminase on the processing and digestion characteristics of glutinous rice flour: Insight of the interactions between enzymic crossing-linked protein and starch

Glutinous rice is extensively consumed due to its nutritious content and wonderful flavor. However, glutinous rice flour has a high glycemic index, and the storage deterioration of sweet dumplingsissevere. Transglutaminase (TG) was used to cross-link glutinous rice protein and improve the characteristics of glutinous rice products. The findings demonstrated that TG significantly catalysed protein cross-linking to form a dense protein network, reduced the viscosity of glutinous rice paste and improved the thermal stability. The protein network may physically block the access of starch granules to digestive enzymes to lower the digestion rate of starch, and attenuate the damage of ice crystal molecules to the starch structure to improve the freezing stability of starch gels. The cracking rate and water loss of sweet dumplings prepared using glutinous rice flour with TG treated for 60 min reduced significantly. In conclusion, this study broadened the application of TG in starch products.

Comparison of noodle-making performance of purple-colored whole wheat flour prepared with a jet mill and an ultra-centrifugal mill.

This study explores the impact of milling methods on the quality and noodle-making performance by comparing jet-milled (WF-JM) and ultra-centrifugally milled (WF-UM) purple-colored whole wheat flours. WF-JM exhibits smaller starch granules and a fragmented protein matrix attributed to the increased milling pressure. Physicochemical analyses reveal lower moisture and higher damaged starch in WF-JM. Rheological analyses show lower viscosity in the WF-JM blends. The mixograph results reveal weaker dough-mixing stability and strength for WF-JM. Cooked noodles from WF-JM are uneven, in contrast to uniform WF-UM strands. Blending WF-UM enhances noodle quality. Overall, the noodle-making performance for WF-JM was inferior compared to WF-UM, confirming the significantly negative impact of damaged starch and fragmented protein matrix in whole wheat flour than the positive effect of particle size. This study highlights the complex interplay between milling methods, particle size, and physicochemical attributes, providing insights for optimizing whole wheat flour processing and product quality.