Heterogeneous Nucleation Process Research Articles

The Quantitative Evaluation of the Cell Structure Uniformity of Microcellular TPU with Low Porosity via a Digital Image Processing Method.

The cell structure uniformity of microcellular polymers significantly impacts material performance, especially for low-porosity microcellular TPU used in chip polishing. The distribution of the cell structure of polishing pads directly affects the removal rate and process repeatability. Despite its importance, no quantitative method for evaluating cell structure uniformity has been reported in the literature. In this study, a digital image processing method that involves morphological operations of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images, binarization, and cell localization, and the statistical evaluation of cell structure parameters was established to evaluate cell structure uniformity. A quantitative metric, the cell structure uniformity index (CUI), was calculated based on cell structure indices, incorporating the cell size index (Ud), the cell number index (Un), and the cell local spacing index (Ur). By establishing an ideal model and analyzing representative SEM images, the effectiveness and efficiency of the method for evaluating cell structure uniformity of microcellular TPU were successfully validated. The results demonstrated that low-porosity TPU foams exhibited relatively low cell structure uniformity compared to the ideal model. The heterogeneous nucleation process in TPU caused non-uniform cell structures due to the temporal and spatial non-homogeneities during the early cell nucleation process. As the cells grew, they merged and reduced the distance between them, resulting in improved cell structure uniformity.

Effect of the crystallographic orientation of the surface of single-crystal Si wafers on the endotaxial growth of NiSi2 nanoplates

A multi-technique analysis was used to investigate how the orientation of single-crystal Si wafer surfaces affects the size, shape and orientation of NiSi2 nanocrystals grown within the wafers through the thermal diffusion of Ni atoms from a nickel-doped thin film deposited on the surface. Nickel-doped thin films were prepared on silicon wafers with three distinct crystallographic orientations, [001], [110] and [111]. Three sets of samples were then annealed at 500, 600 and 700°C for 2 h. Regardless of crystallographic orientation or annealing temperature, NiSi2 nanoplates with a nearly hexagonal shape grew close to the external surface of the wafers, aligning their larger surfaces parallel to one of the planes of the Si{111} crystallographic form. The crystallographic orientation and annealing temperature in the 500–700°C range did not significantly affect the final values of the average diameter and thickness of the nanoplates. However, significant differences were noted in the number of nanoplates formed in Si wafers with different crystallographic orientations. The results indicate that these observed differences are correlated with the number of pre-existing defects in the wafers that influence the heterogeneous nucleation process. In addition, the average size and size dispersion were determined for pores at the surface of the Si wafers formed due to the etching process used for native oxide removal.

On-the-Fly Machine Learning Force Field Study of Liquid-Al/Solid-TiB2 Interfaces.

Using the on-the-fly machine learning force field, simulations were performed to study the atomic structure evolution of the liquid-Al/solid-TiB2 interface with two different terminations, aiming to deepen the understanding of the mechanism of TiB2 as nucleating particles in an aluminum alloy. We conducted simulations using MLFF for up to 100 ps, enabling us to observe the interfacial properties from a deeper and more comprehensive perspective. The nucleation potential of TiB2 particles is determined by the formation of various ordered structures at the interface, which is significantly influenced by the termination of the TiB2 (0001) surface. The evolution of the interface during heterogeneous nucleation processes with different terminations is described using structural information and dynamic characteristics. The Ti-terminated surface is more prone to forming quasi-solid regions compared to the B-termination. Analysis of mean square displacement and vibrational density of states indicates that the liquid layer at the Ti-terminated interface is closer in characteristics to a solid compared to the B-terminated interface. We also found that on the TiB2 (0001) surface different terminations give rise to distinct ordered structures at the interfaces, which is ascribed to their different diffusion abilities.

The impact of aerosols as ice nucleating particle on microphysics and electrification in the cumulus model

Here, a heterogeneous ice nucleation parameterization associated with aerosol acting as ice nucleating particle (INP) was implanted into a two-dimensional numerical cumulus model. To explore the impact of INP on microphysical and electrical processes, a comparison was conducted with the original approach, which employs an empirical formula. Simulation results indicate that INP greatly impacted microphysical evolution in the heterogeneous ice nucleation process, reducing total liquid precipitation amounts and causing a slight precipitation delay, as well as increasing the diameter and mixing ratio of ice crystals and the expansion of the vertical distribution of ice crystals. This led to a notable change in electrification in thunderstorms. The increase of ice crystal diameter was the dominant contributor to the enhancement of electrification using the new parameterization. Additionally, unlike the structure of thunderclouds in a mature stage, which always retains a normal dipole structure adopting the empirical formula, a tripole structure developed a lower positive charge, and the polarity inversion with upper negative and lower positive charges occurred when the new parameterization was adopted. This predominately was the result of abundant ice crystals present below the reversal temperature. The electrification characteristics of thunderstorms may have a close connection with lightning activity. It has been found that charge structure changed significantly in the two cases, with the tripolar charge structure facilitating the production of inverted intra-cloud (IC) flashes and negative Cloud-to-ground (CG) flashes simulated by the new parameterization; additionally, clouds simulated using the empirical formula may be able to develop normal IC lightning and positive CG flashes. Therefore, it will be very meaningful to obtain greater insight into the characteristics of thunderstorms electrification in cumulus model with aerosols.

A numerical study of heterogeneous nucleation of ice crystals and frost layer growth on horizontal cold surfaces

In engineering applications, the formation and growth of frost layers can significantly affect the normal operation of equipment, leading to undesirable influences. Therefore, it is imperative to understand the frost formation mechanisms as a basis for developing effective anti-frosting and defrosting methodologies. This study proposes a model for the growth of horizontal cold surface frost layers using the classical nucleation theory and the Eulerian multiphase flow model. Compared to numerous models that investigate the frost formation issues using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method, our proposed model takes into account the crystal growth period (the heterogeneous nucleation process of ice). The predicted results of the proposed model were found to be in good agreement with the data collected from five related experimental studies. In this regard, the maximum frost layer thickness error was 23.9 % with a mean error of 5.1 %, and the maximum density error was 22.8 % with a mean error of 8.1 %. Compared to existing models in the literature, the proposed model can reduce the maximum thickness and density uncertainties by 17.4 % and 10.2 %, respectively. Additionally, the effects of the surface contact angle and environmental parameters on the nucleation process were analyzed using the established model. It was found that a larger contact angle, higher cold surface temperature, and lower air temperature, humidity, and velocity were unfavorable conditions for supporting the formation and growth of ice crystals. Moreover, the nucleation completion time was shortened with the increase in the moist air supersaturation degree, varying as an exponential function. The findings of this study provide an important theoretical basis for the development of optimizing strategies for anti-frosting and defrosting.

Influence of soluble particles on the heterogeneous coalescence nucleation and separation process in a supersonic cyclone separator

Supersonic cyclone dehydration is a clean and efficient gas–liquid separation technology, and a comprehensive and systematic understanding on the gas–liquid flow patterns is the basis for improving separation performance. In this study, an improved mathematical model combining the condensation deposition mechanism and surface diffusion rate mechanism of water vapor was developed to achieve the coupling of turbulence and condensation. The flow field and heterogeneous condensation process were analyzed using the proposed model, and the separation performance of the separator was evaluated. The injection of NaCl particles promoted the heterogeneous condensation process and increased the formation rate of condensation nuclei, thereby enhancing the separation efficiency of the separator. The difference between the numerical and experimental results for separation efficiency was only 2.35%, indicating that the proposed heterogeneous condensation model can accurately predict and analyze the separation in the heterogeneous condensation process in the separator.

Revealing the Heterogeneous Bubble Nucleation at Individual Silica Nanoparticles.

Deep understanding of the bubble nucleation process is universally important in systems, from chemical engineering to materials. However, due to its nanoscale and transient nature, effective probing of nucleation behavior with a high spatiotemporal resolution is prohibitively challenging. We previously reported the measurement of a single nanobubble nucleation at a nanoparticle using scanning electrochemical cell microscopy, where the bubble nucleation and formation were inferred from the voltammetric responses. Here, we continue the study of heterogeneous bubble nucleation at interfaces by regulating the local nanostructures using silica nanoparticles with a distinct surface morphology. It is demonstrated that, compared to the smooth spherical silica nanoparticles, the raspberry-like nanoparticles can further significantly reduce the nucleation energy barrier, with a critical peak current about 23% of the bare carbon surfaces. This study advances our understanding of how surface nanostructures direct the heterogeneous nucleation process and may offer a new strategy for surface engineering in gas involved energy conversion systems.

Low-temperature ice nucleation of sea spray and secondary marine aerosols under cirrus cloud conditions

Abstract. Sea spray aerosols (SSAs) represent one of the most abundant aerosol types on a global scale and have been observed at all altitudes including the upper troposphere. SSA has been explored in recent years as a source of ice-nucleating particles (INPs) in cirrus clouds due to the ubiquity of cirrus clouds and the uncertainties in their radiative forcing. This study expands upon previous works on low-temperature ice nucleation of SSA by investigating the effects of atmospheric aging of SSA and the ice-nucleating activity of newly formed secondary marine aerosols (SMAs) using an oxidation flow reactor. Polydisperse aerosol distributions were generated from a marine aerosol reference tank (MART) filled with 120 L of real or artificial seawater and were dried to very low relative humidity to crystallize the salt constituents of SSA prior to their subsequent freezing, which was measured using a continuous flow diffusion chamber (CFDC). Results show that for primary SSA (pSSA), as well as aged SSA and SMA (aSSA+SMA) at temperatures >220 K, homogeneous conditions (92 %–97 % relative humidity with respect to water – RHw) were required to freeze 1 % of the particles. However, below 220 K, heterogeneous nucleation occurs for both pSSA and aSSA+SMA at much lower RHw, where up to 1 % of the aerosol population freezes between 75 % and 80 % RHw. Similarities between freezing behaviors of the pSSA and aSSA+SMA at all temperatures suggest that the contributions of condensed organics onto the pSSA or alteration of functional groups in pSSA via atmospheric aging did not hinder the major heterogeneous ice nucleation process at these cirrus temperatures, which have previously been shown to be dominated by the crystalline salts. Occurrence of a 1 % frozen fraction of SMA, generated in the absence of primary SSA, was observed at or near water saturation below 220 K, suggesting it is not an effective INP at cirrus temperatures, similar to findings in the literature on other organic aerosols. Thus, any SMA coatings on the pSSA would only decrease the ice nucleation behavior of pSSA if the organic components were able to significantly delay water uptake of the inorganic salts, and apparently this was not the case. Results from this study demonstrate the ability of lofted primary sea spray particles to remain an effective ice nucleator at cirrus temperatures, even after atmospheric aging has occurred over a period of days in the marine boundary layer prior to lofting. We were not able to address aging processes under upper-tropospheric conditions.

Microfluidic-enabled control of ethanol oxidation catalyst synthesis by separating heterogeneous nucleation and growth processes

The rational design of inexpensive and highly efficient electrocatalysts for ethanol oxidation reaction (EOR) is crucial for direct ethanol fuel cells. In this study, a series of carbon-supported PtCu electrocatalysts with varying Pt/Cu ratios were synthesized using a microfluidic system. This system enabled the separation of heterogeneous nucleation and nanocrystal growth based on segmental thermal induction. Heterogeneous nucleation occurred at the low-temperature zone, which resulted in uniform loading, while the enhancement of solvent reducibility in the high-temperature region enabled the control of the PtCu nanoparticle composition. The synthesized PtCu/C electrocatalyst, with Cu content adjustable from 17% to 38%, exhibited high crystallinity and homogeneous dispersion, with an average particle size of 3.9 nm. These advantageous physical properties endowed the PtCu/C electrocatalysts with significantly enhanced electrocatalytic performance for EOR compared with commercial Pt/C catalysts. The development of this method presents a novel approach for the controlled preparation of supported catalysts.

The influence of B doping on phase formation and microstructural evolution in NHL during solid-state reactions

Natural Hydraulic Lime (NHL), was synthesized by doping B2O3 into calcium carbonate and silica aerogel. By introducing varying levels of B3+ ion doping (0/1/5/10/15/20/25 mol%), a range of NHL compositions were successfully prepared, thereby enabling regulation of the NHL phase composition. Furthermore, through the doping of 25 mol% B3+ ions, in-depth investigations employing XRD, SEM, and FT-IR were conducted to explore phase transitions and ion migration during NHL calcination at different temperatures. Thermal analysis kinetics studies further revealed the variation of activation energies for CaCO3 decomposition and C2S crystallization with changing levels of B3+ ion doping. The introduction of B ions was observed to stabilize the α’ phase of dicalcium silicate (C2S) and moderately enhance the reactivity of calcium oxide (CaO). B3+ ions significantly influenced the crystallization mechanism of C2S, shifting it from a diffusion-controlled process to a heterogeneous nucleation process. The application of the Kissinger and Flynn-Wall-Ozawa (FWO) methods assisted in elucidating the underlying reasons for these differences. Both approaches demonstrated a substantial decrease in activation energy, signifying the pronounced influence of B doping on the sintering regime and phase transition mechanism of NHL. In summary, the precise modulation of NHL phase composition and sintering regime was achieved through B doping. These findings not only deepen our understanding of the mechanistic role of B3+ ions in NHL preparation and application but also offer robust guidance for the production process of NHL.

The smallest nanodrop describable via macroscopic interfacial concepts: Testing classical heterogeneous nucleation theory with perfect wetting down to 3 nm

HypothesisThe smallest nanodrop tractable with macroscopic notions such as the interfacial energy could be determined by comparing heterogeneous nucleation observations and capillary theory predictions at decreasing drop diameters dp. AnalysisThis is done here for the condensation of n-butanol vapors on polyethylene glycol nano-globules (3 nm ≤ dp ≤ 9 nm). We use published activation probability measurements P(w,dp), where w is the accurately controlled saturation ratio of n-butanol vapor in a gas stream exiting a saturator. The maximal saturation ratio achieved in the nucleation region by cooling this gas-vapor stream in the apparatus of Gallar et al. satisfies Smax = Cw. The key unknown constant C and the preexponential term K governing the nucleation rate are determined by assuming that classical theory applies to the largest particles used. This yields P(Smax,dp) data, directly comparable with capillary theory with perfect wetting. FindingsExcellent agreement is found above 5 nm for the critical dependence Smax(dp) resulting from the constraint P(Smax,dp) = 0.5. The entire P(Smax,dp) curves also agree closely between 5 and 7 nm. Smaller particles depart only slightly from theory, even at dp = 3 nm. Capillary theory hence describes accurately the heterogeneous nucleation process above 3–5 nm, provides a reliable method to determine Smax, and yields experimentally the nucleation rate constant K.

Analysis of the effect of cooling rate on the solidification characteristics of solar salts

The scale and interface effects of nanomaterials lead to their unique thermophysical properties, distinct from bulk materials, thereby significantly affecting the phase-transition behaviour of mesoporous nanomaterials. Studies on solidification characteristics of phase-change materials with different pore sizes or those adsorbed by different skeletons are of great significance for improving the efficiency of energy storage and developing composite phase-change materials (CPCMs). The variations in the solidification temperature, degree of subcooling, and solidification enthalpy of mesoporous skeleton/solar salt CPCMs under different cooling rates were analysed based on the self-diffusion coefficient and potential-energy–temperature curve, along with experimental methods. As the cooling rate increased, the above-mentioned phase-transition parameters varied with changes in the size of the mesoporous core. In particular, for the same core size, the degree of subcooling of the solar salt increased, whereas the solidification temperature decreased with increasing cooling rate, latent heat increased with increasing cooling rate. Moreover, an increase in the cooling rate significantly promoted the surface nucleation and heterogeneous nucleation processes, resulting in the influence of interface change on the phase-transition parameters.

Effect of ethane on condensation characteristics of methane heterogeneous nucleation: A molecular dynamics study

Clarification on condensation characteristics of alkane gases plays a fundamental role in the development of natural gas liquefaction processes. However, the microscopic condensation characteristics of alkane gas on the heat exchanger wall are still not well understood, which holds significant practical implications for advancing liquefaction technologies. Therefore, this study investigates the microscopic condensation process of heterogeneous nucleation with methane gas through molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. By varying wall energy and ethane content, we analyzed the nucleation kinetic properties of methane heterogeneous condensation. The results demonstrate that high-energy walls enhance heat transfer by enhancing the interaction between wall and methane, thereby accelerating condensation core formation and increasing methane condensation rates. Additionally, increasing ethane content also shortens the time for the formation of condensation cores in methane gas. Ethane has a higher condensation temperature compared to methane, and its presence reduces the difficulty of forming condensation cores in alkane gases and shortens the time for liquid core formation, thus facilitating methane condensation. The above research results will provide new insight for natural gas liquefaction process.

Experimental and first-principles characterization of heterogeneous nucleation of η on the E(Al18Mg3Cr2) phase in the 7075 Al alloys

In this work, the heterogeneous nucleation process in the early ageing period is systematically analyzed by means of electron microscope images and phase transition crystallography calculations with a near-row matching model, which illustrate the phenomenon that the surface of the E phase directly nucleates the equilibrium phase η instead of following the ageing sequence. It is found that the structures of E phase and η phase at the interface have high similarity, and atom matching can be realized in several crystal directions and crystal planes. Through a combination of experimental observation and first-principles, HAADF-STEM images from three different E/η interfaces are characterized in detail, and they are found to belong to three different views of the same orientation relation (OR), while the segregation behavior at such E/η interfaces is calculated. By calculating and analyzing interfacial properties at the atomic level, this basic data will be useful for more in-depth analyses in the future, as well as facilitating the design and updating of materials.

Heterogeneous nucleation condensation of methane gas on the wall-A molecular dynamics study

Methane is condensed in a low-temperature heat exchanger, a critical step in the liquefaction of natural gas. Currently, the microscopic mechanism regarding the heterogeneous condensation of methane on the heat exchanger wall remains unclear. This lack of understanding is of scientific importance in advancing the development of natural gas liquefaction processes. Therefore, molecular dynamics simulation is used in this paper to study the process of methane heterogeneous nucleation and core growth during the early stage of condensation, and analyze the influence mechanism of wall energy and cold source temperature on nucleation kinetics. The results show that the high-energy wall can enhance the interaction between cold wall atoms and methane molecules, facilitate heat transfer, accrete methane molecules to condense and adsorb on the wall to form a core, thus increasing the condensation rate of methane. Whereas, the low-temperature cold source promotes the condensation nucleation and growth process by increasing the supersaturation of methane. This study investigates the process and kinetic characteristics of heterogeneous nucleation of methane from a microscale perspective, providing guidance for the development of natural gas liquefaction in low-temperature heat exchangers, with the aim of enhancing the diversity and reliability of energy supply.

Metastable Amorphous Dispersions of Hydrophobic Naphthalene Compounds Can Be Formed in Water without Stabilizing Agents via the "Ouzo Effect".

Hydrophobic molecules dissolved in water-miscible organic solvents are used in vitro for biological membrane studies and for testing of potential pharmaceuticals in high-throughput screenings. When these solutions are introduced into an aqueous environment, it is possible that metastable "ouzo-like" dispersions form from liquid-liquid phase separation. It is therefore hypothesized that when solutions of naphthalene compounds in water-miscible solvents are added to water, metastable dispersions will form. Millimolar solutions of naphthalene, N-phenyl-1-naphthylamine (NPN), 1-aminonaphthalene, 1-iodonaphthalene (INAP), 1,4-dimethoxynaphthalene, and 1-naphthol were prepared in either dimethyl sulfoxide, ethanol, or acetone at concentrations similar to those used in biological membrane studies. Each solution was diluted 10-fold in water. Particle formation was characterized by qualitative observations, dynamic light-scattering, nephelometry, and optical microscopy. It was discovered that two of the compounds tested made metastable dispersions: INAP and NPN. The initial particle sizes were ∼400 nm (radius), with turbidity ranging from 1,000 to 20,000 NTU, depending on the initial concentrations used. Fluorescence microscopy imaging showed spherical particles that do not aggregate while under observation. Slow-nucleating crystallization occurs over days, presumably from a heterogeneous nucleation process. The formation of these dispersions has implications for in vitro delivery of hydrophobic molecules to biological membranes.

A Nanoparticle-Based Model System for the Study of Heterogeneous Nucleation Phenomena.

Heterogeneous nucleation processes are involved in many important phenomena in nature, including devastating human diseases caused by amyloid structures or the harmful frost formed on fruits. However, understanding them is challenging due to the difficulties of characterizing the initial stages of the process occurring at the interface between the nucleation medium and the substrate surfaces. This work implements a model system based on gold nanoparticles to investigate the effect of particle surface chemistry and substrate properties on heterogeneous nucleation processes. Using widely available techniques such as UV-vis-NIR spectroscopy and light microscopy, gold nanoparticle-based superstructure formation was studied in the presence of substrates with different hydrophilicity and electrostatic charges. The results were evaluated on grounds of classical nucleation theory (CNT) to reveal kinetic and thermodynamic contributions of the heterogeneous nucleation process. In contrast to nucleation from ions, the kinetic contributions toward nucleation turned out to be larger than the thermodynamic contributions for the nanoparticle building blocks. Electrostatic interactions between substrates and nanoparticles with opposite charges were crucial to enhancing the nucleation rates and decreasing the nucleation barrier of superstructure formation. Thereby, the described strategy is demonstrated advantageous for characterizing physicochemical aspects of heterogeneous nucleation processes in a simple and accessible manner, which could be potentially explored to study more complex nucleation phenomena.

Constructing outstanding 1D/2D Co3O4/NiMnO3 heterostructure to promote the PEC efficiency for water pollution remediation

The structural design and morphology control of materials is a very attractive topic because the structure and morphology of materials usually play a key role for their performance and application. In this work, we report a facile two-step hydrothermal process for construction of the binary composite oxide system (i.e., 1D/2D Co3O4/NiMnO3 core-shell heterostructure) based on Ostwald ripening effect. Interestingly, Co3O4 nanowire will expand only when it is fully covered with NiMnO3 nanosheets to form a core-shell structure in sequential hydrothermal process. In binary composite oxide system, the formation of continuous and uniform interface between core (Co3O4) and shell (NiMnO3) based on Ostwald ripening effect is the key factor in the heterogeneous nucleation process, which can be proved by the homogeneous diffusion of Co element in the Ti/Co3O4-NiMnO3 sample. As a result, the optimized Ti/Co3O4-NiMnO3-1.5 exhibited superior PEC performance (degradation rates are ∼ 91.2% for 120 min and 80.5% after 5 cycles) for degrading reactive brilliant blue KN-R solution, which can be attributed to the construction of the hollow Co3O4/NiMnO3 core-shell heterostructure. Furthermore, the identification experiments of active species showed that the h+ and •O2- radicals are the dominant reactive species, indicating the induced charge transfer is based on the type II semiconductor heterostructure.

Electric Field Driven Reversible Spinodal Dewetting of Thin Liquid Films on Slippery Surfaces

AbstractThe stability of thin liquid films on a surface depends on the excess free energy of the system involving various short‐range and long‐range interactions. When forced to wet an unfavorable surface, thin liquid films dewet into multiple small‐sized droplets via spinodal, homogeneous, or heterogeneous nucleation process. However, if the total excess free energy of the system can be manipulated using external stimuli, for example, electric field, temperature, or light, one can control the stability of thin liquid films on demand. Here the electric‐field induced reversible dewetting and rewetting of thin liquid films underneath aqueous drops on slippery surfaces is studied. Upon applying voltage, hundreds of nanometer thick stable liquid films dewet in a manner identical to the spinodal dewetting of few nanometer‐thick liquid films following the linear stability analysis. Upon removing the applied voltage, the dewetted droplets spread, coalesce with neighboring ones, and form a uniform film again, albeit taking significantly longer times. The characteristic features defined via spatial and temporal evolution of the dewetting and rewetting processes are present over multiple cycles suggesting the complete reversibility of the process.

Microstructure development, mechanical properties and underlying mechanism of micro-TiN-reinforced AlSi10Mg composites fabricated by selective laser melting

In this study, aluminum matrix composites reinforced with micro-TiN were fabricated using selective laser melting (SLM) technique. The study investigates the effects of TiN content on densification, microstructure evolution, crystal textures, and mechanical properties. The results show that the relative density of composite samples containing 0?3 wt. % TiN exceeds 98%. However, further increase in TiN content leads to a decrease in relative density. The TiN particles are uniformly distributed and wetted by the AlSi10Mg matrix, forming a graded interfacial layer. The TiN particles refine the matrix grains and significantly reduce the prevalence (001) texture by promoting a heterogeneous nucleation process. In comparison to the AlSi10Mg alloy, the TiN/AlSi10Mg composite exhibits improved microhardness, tensile strength, and wear resistance. The exceptional mechanical properties of the Al matrix composites are attributed to the dispersion strengthening of the TiN particles and the fine-grain strengthening of the matrix. The optimal TiN content is found to be 3 wt. %, resulting in excellent mechanical performance of the fabricated samples (132.4?4.1 HV for hardness and 379.7?4.6 MPa for tensile strength) with a low friction coefficient of 0.49.