Desegregation Process Research Articles

From Desegregation and Integration to Diversity and Inclusion: The Environment Was Just Ice

The process of desegregation at Southern schools of pharmacy was long and arduous. Despite persistent protests, struggles, and lawsuits, many schools of pharmacy did not graduate their first Black students until the 1970s. The School of Pharmacy at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill unintentionally desegregated in 1962 when its first Black student, William Wicker, was inadvertently admitted. His personal story and those of his fellow pioneers in desegregation, Mona (Boston) Reddick and James Barnes, provide valuable context to Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion efforts. The historical proximity of desegregation affords the pharmacy profession only one or two generations of Black pharmacists trained during an era when Southern pharmacy education was broadly available. These stories personify the legacy of segregation, confront the ongoing impact of structural racism, and meaningfully inform conversations about Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in pharmacy education.

Healthcare Justice, Medicare, and the Racial Desegregation of Hospitals in the South

This article explores the advent of Medicare, the process of desegregation of hospitals in the South, and the resistance to this governmental oversight. Events at the Medical College Hospital of South Carolina are described as an exemplar to illustrate the struggle for healthcare justice for Black Americans where the struggle for racially integrated healthcare ended in a hospital workers strike. Four hundred Black women walked off their jobs and marched in picket lines for 113 days without pay before the economic and human rights issues were resolved. As the cause for racial justice continues in America, an understanding of this story which represents the beginning of the long struggle for health equity which impacts our profession, and our patients, can benefit all nurses. This article reviews this important exemplar in its time period and offers a description of current efforts and implications for the profession of nursing.

Trends in the desegregation of former Whites-only state schools in Pretoria (South Africa): a time-space investigation

ABSTRACT The school is a confined interpersonal contact space for students and lends itself to the social integration of mixed-race populations. However, the success of an integration process is, amongst other factors, linked to the racial numerical mix of a desegregating school. The literature on school desegregation in South Africa lacks empirical evidence that would support or contradict popular views on demographic trends in the desegregation process. This article investigates the changing racial profiles of former Whites-only state schools (referred to here as FMC schools) in Pretoria over three decades. The key findings are: (1) the number of Black (=non-White) learners in FMC schools in Pretoria constantly increased and surpassed that of White learners shortly before 2015; (2) the number of Black learners in primary FMC schools constantly increased faster than that in secondary schools, and (3) after a brief period of school desegregation, White and Black learners re-polarized again into White and Black school clusters. These findings suggest that social integration is not the primary motive for registering at FMC schools but that it is driven by access to quality education and further streamed by choices of association.

Black Man in the Huddle: Stories from the Integration of Texas Football by Robert D. Jacobus

Reviewed by: Black Man in the Huddle: Stories from the Integration of Texas Football by Robert D. Jacobus J. Anthony Guillory Black Man in the Huddle: Stories from the Integration of Texas Football. By Robert D. Jacobus. Foreword by Annette Gordon-Reed. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2019. 280 pp. Illustrations, bibliography, index. $29.95 cloth. Robert D. Jacobus's Black Man in the Huddle interrogates the oral history accounts of men who participated in the desegregation of high school and college football in Texas. Jacobus is primarily interested in the experiences of black student athletes who were born in or who came to Texas to participate in interscholastic or intercollegiate football. He also examines the testimony of white and Latino student athletes and their coaches. Though Jacobus allows his subjects to speak for themselves, he frames his text around a few basic points that serve as a means of illuminating the experiences of young [End Page 168] men who navigated often hostile terrain to find athletic and academic success. An important claim Jacobus makes is that, despite differences in racial tensions from one city to the next, common themes often reverberated as African Americans negotiated a nuanced Jim Crow system designed to keep African Americans in an inferior status. Jacobus also argues that resistance to desegregation could be explained by the demographics and geography of a particular desegregating town. According to Jacobus, for cities where African American populations were smaller in size, the process of desegregation was easier than in spaces where the numbers of black residents were large enough to rival their white counterparts. Jacobus also claims that proximity to the former Confederacy helped to determine resistance to desegregation. The result was that spaces like Dallas, Houston, and East Texas were slower to desegregate while spaces like Corpus Christi and San Antonio desegregated relatively early. One of the reasons Jacobus's text is valuable is that it analyzes the reasons why black players elected to stay at black high schools or colleges and why they chose to enter desegregated spaces. Jacobus probes black former student athletes who traveled outside the South to play college football. He reveals that close ties, academic resources, and the presence of other black students helped to provide black student athletes with enough incentive to persist, matriculate, and ultimately graduate from white colleges located outside the South. Jacobus's book is an excellent addition to the study of school desegregation and the desegregation of sports institutions. This is a text for both fans and scholars of sport history. It uses first-person accounts to explain how players—black, white, and Latino, along with their coaches—negotiated this complex set of social, political, and athletic issues related to desegregation in the post–Brown v. Board of Education era to achieve athletic and academic success. J. Anthony Guillory Department of History University of Texas at Arlington Copyright © 2022 Center for Great Plains Studies, University of Nebraska–Lincoln

Panic at the Picture Show: Southern Movie Theatre Culture and the Struggle to Desegregate

This paper explores the complex desegregation process of movie theatres in the southern United States. Building off of historiography that investigates regulations of postwar teenage sexuality and recent scholarly work that acknowledges the link between sexuality and civil rights, I argue that movie theatres had a uniquely delayed desegregation process due to perceived sexual intrigue of the dark, private theatre space. Through analysis of drive-in and hardtop theatres, censorship of on-screen content, and youth involvement in desegregation, I contend that anxieties of interracial intimacy and unsupervised teenage sexuality produced this especially prolonged integration process.

Panic at the Picture Show: Southern Movie Theatre Culture and the Struggle to Desegregate

This paper explores the complex desegregation process of movie theatres in the southern United States. Building off of historiography that investigates regulations of postwar teenage sexuality and recent scholarly work that acknowledges the link between sexuality and civil rights, I argue that movie theatres had a uniquely delayed desegregation process due to perceived sexual intrigue of the dark, private theatre space. Through analysis of drive-in and hardtop theatres, censorship of on-screen content, and youth involvement in desegregation, I contend that anxieties of interracial intimacy and unsupervised teenage sexuality produced this especially prolonged integration process.

The Stalled Gender Revolution and the Rise of Top Earnings in the United States, 1980 to 2017

The steep rise of top wages is acknowledged as one of the main drivers of the rise in earnings inequality between workers in most postindustrial labor markets. Yet its relation to gender stratification, in particular to the stagnation in the gender pay gap, has received very little scholarly attention. Using data from the U.S. Current Population Survey, conducted between 1980 and 2017, we provide evidence of the enormous weight that the dynamic at the top of the earnings distribution exerts on the gender pay gap. We also show how this dynamic inhibits the consequences of the countervailing process of gender vertical desegregation. Although developments in gender inequality and in the rise of top wages have drawn extensive scholarly attention and have even penetrated into the public discourse in recent years, the two dimensions of inequality are often perceived as unrelated to one another. Our findings, then, highlight the connection between different forms of inequality—class inequality and gender inequality—a relation that demands much more attention in the new economy.

STUDENT EXPERIENCES OF IMMIGRANT TEACHERS IN SOUTH AFRICAN SCHOOLS

1. Introduction Educational reforms in South Africa have been framed by legislative policies that promote democracy and human rights. The South African Schools Act (Act No 37 of 1997) catalysed by the Bill of Rights and the South African Constitution formalised the process of desegregation of schools in South Africa. As a result of these constitutional measures, the public schooling system in South Africa has undergone radical changes. It created the opportunity for students from diverse cultural backgrounds to attend public schools of their choice; as much as this choice was determined by extraneous factors such as high school fees, travelling distances, language of instruction, amongst others. It also created the opportunity for teachers of any race group to teach at public schools. Furthermore, it created the opportunity for black (Indian/ African) immigrant teachers to be employed at public schools in South Africa. A vast number of black (Africa/Indian) immigrant teachers who are employed at South African schools come from the African continent, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Consequently, many South African learners have for the first time been exposed to these immigrant teachers. What is the ethos of reception that South African learners provide to immigrant teachers? What are the reactions of South African learners towards immigrant teachers? What are some of the challenges that South African learners encounter? What are some of the opportunities? What lessons can be learnt from these experiences? Accordingly, this study asks, what are students' experiences of immigrant teachers in South African schools? Against this context we developed a project to look at experiences of immigrant teachers in general and more specifically how they reconstruct and renegotiate their professional identities in this new context. The findings are discussed in some publications (Vandeyar, Vandeyar & Elufisan 2013). In focusing on students that were taught by these immigrant teachers, as a means of triangulating the data, it became evident that talking about their experiences of immigrant teachers meant also that they expressed views and opinions about South African teachers. The portrait that unfolded was one of immigrant teachers juxtaposed against South African teachers. The picture they created about South African teachers is troublesome in its negativity. The purpose of this paper is twofold; to explore South African learners' experiences of immigrant teachers and to establish in detail what the negative picture of South African teachers is about and what implications it holds for South African society. The findings are presented and subsequently analysed and discussed in an attempt to unpack learners' experiences of immigrant teachers in South African schools? 2. Background context The advent of democracy in South Africa witnessed the reincorporation of South Africa into the international arena and also the dissolution of South Africa's fortified borders which allowed more people and goods to enter the country effortlessly (Klotz 2000). Before 1994 only white Europeans were allowed to enter South Africa as professionals while black Africans were restricted to the supply of unskilled labour such as farm labourers and mine workers (Adepoju 2003). During the apartheid era it was government policy to relentlessly limit black immigration and actively encourage white immigration (Morris 1998: 1118). The relaxation of fortified borders particularly afforded immigrants from other African countries that were previously denied access, to now freely enter South Africa. This easier access brought about challenges and opportunities for black immigrants. First, it exposed many black immigrants, especially those from African countries, to xenophobic violence (Sharp 2008; Steinberg 2008). One of the reasons for these attacks is that some South Africans, especially black African South Africans (1) perceive immigrants from African countries as competitors for available jobs and resources (Stemmett 2008; Hassim, Kupe & Worby 2008). …

Panas pela of education: Desegregation of Muslim and Christian post-reconciliation at SMPN 4 Salahutu Liang and SMPN 9 Ambon

This article examines the process of desegregation through panas pela of education at SMPN 4 Salahutu Liang and SMPN 9 Ambon. Panas pela of education is a transformation of pela gandong local wisdom with the aim ofovercoming segregation in schools. Pela gandong is a bond of brotherhoodbetween the people of Maluku, regardless of religion, either Islam or Christian.The implementation of panas pela of education has been started since 2013between SMPN 9 Ambon, whose students are 99% Christian/Catholic and SMPN 4 Salahutu Liang, which are 100% Muslim students. This research method uses qualitative research with a case study approach. Data collection techniques used by observation, participation, literature review, interviews, and documentation. Panas pela of education as a process of desegregation is carried out in the form of joint activities such as sports fairs, scouts, iftar, Christmas, student council activities and teacher exchanges. In addition, the students also performed dances, songs, and poetry without any segregation between them. In the midst of the current strengthening of polarization due to political choices, the panas pela of education is present as a means of social integration and evidence of the existence of harmonization between religious adherents in Indonesia.

Turbulence in St. Louis County: School Transfers, Opportunity Hoarding, and the Legacy of Brown

ABSTRACT In the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education case, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled segregated schools unconstitutional, and the process of school desegregation fell mostly to Black children. For over 35 years, Black families in St. Louis City have been using school transfers to cross boundaries in order to send their children to higher performing, predominately White schools in suburban St. Louis County in search of “a better education.” Relying on turbulence theory and Critical Race Theory (CRT), this study uses a media framing analysis to examine how newspaper articles described school transfers to the broader public between 2007 and 2017. Findings indicate that the articles described Black and White school districts as being affected by varying levels of turbulence and conflict. Findings also outline examples of opportunity hoarding by White schools and districts. The original focus of the Brown case was the lack of equitable resources in Black schools, and this study reignites questions about exclusion, privilege, and the choices made by Black families to receive educational equity.

Study of Nb non-equilibrium segregation at prior austenite grain boundary in welding using atom probe tomography and modeling

The non-equilibrium segregation of Nb at prior austenite grain boundary (PAGB) induced by welding is experimentally investigated by means of atom probe tomography (APT). The Nb concentration at PAGB appeared to be 0.115 at.% for experimental steel containing 0.06 at.% Nb at the simulated welding thermal cycle for 10 s from 1320 to 950 °C. The critical time tc for achieving maximum segregation is calculated to be 565 s for the experimental steel. For the first time, the diffusion coefficient of Nb in desegregation process is calculated for the temperature of Ti = 950 °C using non-equilibrium segregation model and APT experimental result and is confirmed to be 9.23 × 10−11 m2/s. Based on it, the kinetics of Nb non-equilibrium segregation at the PAGBs in welding process is outlined, and the segregation process and desegregation process are discussed. The Nb segregation at PAGB is also predicted over the t8/5 range of 3–600 s. The critical t8/5, at which the highest Nb concentration of 0.144 at.% at PAGB is predicted to be achieved, is ~ 29 s.

Changes in the gender segregation of occupations in Sweden between 2003 and 2011.

The aim of this study was to analyze possible changes in the gender composition of occupations in Sweden, using register data covering the whole working population. Cross tabulations on gender by occupation were computed and comparisons made of numbers and proportions of women and men aged 20-64 years to illustrate occupational gender-segregation categories in 2003 and 2011, respectively. All of those in working ages, employed in 2003 and 2011 (4.2 resp 4.7 millions individuals), were included. Differences in the distribution of women and men in all occupations were summarized using two gender-segregation indexes from 2003 and 2011, separately. The proportion of women increased in the gender-integrated (⩾40-<60% women) occupations. Also, the proportion of women in high-skilled professional occupations in the male-dominated category increased, as well as the proportion of men in mostly low-skilled female-dominated occupations, mainly in the service sector. The gender-segregation of occupations measured by the Index of Dissimilarly and the Karmel and MacLachlan Index was lower in 2011 than in 2003. The process of de-segregation has continued during our study period, from 2003 to 2011. The proportion of women increased in occupations that demand higher education, both in gender-integrated and in male-dominated occupations, which can contribute to a decrease in the level of sickness absence for women. Men increased their proportion in low-skilled, female-dominated occupations - a group with high levels of sickness absence or disability pension.

Axiomatisation and Simulation

The paper discusses the relation between the “non-statement view” of the structuralist program in philosophy of science and agent-based simulation and the use of this relation for a deeper understanding of the verification and the validation of simulation models. To this end it uses the history of the gender desegregation process in German schools in the second half of the 20th century and two simulation models trying to explain and understand this historical process. The relation between the two simulation models on one hand and the structuralist reconstruction of the mental and verbal theory of the observed phenomenon is depicted step by step, showing the verification of the more recent simulation model along the lines of the formal definition of this theory. Finally, the simulation model is used to make two unobservable parameters measurable with the help of the formalised theory, which allows new insights into the historical process.

Ethno-nationally divided cities and the use of art for purposes of conflict resolution and urban regeneration

This paper examines ethno-nationally divided cities and how the arts are used in such contexts for conflict resolution and urban regeneration. Three ethno-nationally divided cities at different stages of conflict resolution – Jerusalem, Nicosia, Belfast – are juxtaposed and explored. Ethno-nationally divided cities, which have become defined by their separation, are increasingly being studied to understand a common urban experience, to consider how partition politics develop and to learn how to best avoid them. Parallel art practices are also noted in these three urban milieus, in so far as they aim to assist conflict resolution and create zones that facilitate social transformation. This article addresses the use of art as a tool of social cohesion, through examination of art projects targeted at ethno-national division and conflict. Looking at three different, but similar, cities demonstrates how art has been used at different stages of the desegregation process, and how these processes can potentially lead to new patterns of divisions. The use of the arts in divided city contexts is related to art used in broader urban contexts to address segregation and facilitate social engagement and shared spaces.

The Wilmington Ten: Violence, Injustice, and the Rise of Black Politics in the 1970s

The port city of Wilmington, North Carolina, developed into a storm center in the black revolt of the 1960s and 1970s. Black students spread the politics of disruption, including walkouts and boycotts, to some forty high schools and middle schools in the state and galvanized a grassroots movement. The underlying cause of much of the disturbance across North Carolina was the desegregation process. Rather than integrate the schools on the basis of equality by sending black and white students in proportionate numbers to formerly segregated schools, school boards either struggled to maintain racially separate schools or closed black schools and displaced only African American students, sending them to schools where they faced hostile administrators, teachers, and white parents and students. Once there, they were placed in separate classes. (p. 20) By 1971, a new stage of racial violence developed during school desegregation as white hate organizers put together the paramilitary Rights of White People to accompany Ku Klux Klan and Nazi terror against black high school students. Those white paramilitary groups began shooting with impunity at students and into the Gregory Congregational Church that served as the headquarters for the Wilmington movement.

The Pursuit of Inclusion in Unequal Contemporary Cities. Learning from Cape Town Desegregation

One of the greatest challenges of contemporary cities is to engage with their emerging inequality. This research argues that public spaces play a key role in contrasting the process of this growing marginalization. The objective of this paper is to determine whether it is possible to contrast the spatial disparity within the contemporary cities, through the design of more “just” and inclusive spaces. In the past two decades South Africa has been the subject of many studies regarding inequality and segregation, because of its entrenched history of apartheid and its severe imbalanced income distribution. The desegregation process of Cape Town has been attempting to use public space as social infrastructure to bridge its divide. Firstly, the shift towards a more inclusive city happened in academic writing. Secondly, the shift also occurs in municipal public space programmes. And lastly, the shift materialized in several innovative projects, which have been carried out mainly in township areas. Through the analysis of this progression, it is possible to delineate some visible improvements – punctual but fundamental steps towards a “city for all.”

Avoyelles Parish Public Schools: Louisiana School for the Agricultural Sciencess Admission Policies as a Breeding Ground for a Return to Legal Segregation

In the landmark decision of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, the United States Supreme Court declared that doctrine of “separate but equal” was unconstitutional; however, nearly six decades later schools are divided along racial lines. Avoyelles Parish Public Schools have been under specific order to effectively desegregate its schools and achieve unitary status since 1954. Avoyelles Parish School Board has been placed under three desegregation decrees, the first of which was issued in 1969. Avoyelles Parish has failed to effectively desegregate its schools pursuant to the orders outlined in the desegregation decrees. The author seeks to uncover how Avoyelles Parish has attempted to circumvent the goals outlined in the desegregation decree by implementing a charter school that admits students by using subjective admission standards. Specifically, Avoyelles Parish has sought to continue the destructive cycle of racial segregation in its schools by applying measures that are designed to limit the number of African-American students that are admitted to the school. For example, Avoyelles Parish has implemented a number of factors (sibling requirement, parent employment) that contribute to the amount of points allocated to certain students. The admission requirements violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment because they were designed with the intent of discriminating against a particular class of people and the effect of such policies actually does discriminate against African-American students. She concludes that for Avoyelles Parish to effectively adhere to the desegregation decree and successfully integrate its schools, the federal government must continue to actively participate in the desegregation process. Additionally, the factors that are used in the admission process must be abolished.

Court Orders, White Flight, and School District Segregation, 1970–2010

American public schools experienced a substantial reduction of black-white segregation after the Supreme Court ordered the immediate desegregation of Mississippi schools in 1969. Past research has shown that progress slowed by the 1990s, with some arguing that segregation actually began to rebound. This study is the first to examine enrollment data for each decade between 1970 and 2010 for a comprehensive set of districts across the country and also the first to include data for 1980 for a national sample of districts. It provides definitive evidence that most desegregation occurred in the 1970s, with little subsequent change. It also addresses two questions about the desegregation process. First, how closely was it tied to court orders for a particular school district or for a neighboring district? Desegregation was greatest in response to a legal mandate, but it also extended to districts that never faced court action. Second, what was the effect of mandates on white flight? White student enrollment declined generally in these decades but more in districts that faced a mandate in the immediate past decade. White flight contributed to a modest increase in segregation between school districts, but desegregation within districts was sufficient to result in a large net decline at a metropolitan level.

“Good Law” Versus “Bad Law”: Civil Disobedience During the Desegregation Process in the United States of America

In 1954, after almost sixty years of tolerating the separate-but-equal doctrine shaped in Plessy v. Ferguson, the U.S. Supreme Court decided to reject the unequal policy of the government in educational system, and thus to initiate changes in the status of racial segregation. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka decision ignited both positive and negative feelings and emotions of Americans, who began to show two types of civil disobedience. The first type of disobedience was addressed against the Court and its controversial precedent, and could be visible mainly in Southern states among white citizens and some state authorities. Despite the fact that the Court’s decision was binding, Southern judges, politicians as well as ordinary people showed their disobedience towards the highest judicial institution in the country and its notion of desegregation. The second type of civil disobedience was addressed towards these institutions which neglected the necessity of social change and promotion of equality, and could be observed in actions undertaken by various individuals and organizations aiming at broadening the constitutional protection of black Americans. The purpose of the article is to analyze both types of civil disobedience which were initiated by the same source – a judicial precedent, and had an enormous impact on American society of the late 1950s and early 1960s, leading to final change in the perception of the equality principle as well as the status of civil rights. The article proposes a thesis that the scope and character of civil disobedience may depend on the ideology of certain social groups and therefore influence their attitude to the direction of changes in law.

Gateway to Equality: desegregation and the American Association of University Women in St Louis, Missouri

In 1946 the National Board of the American Association of University Women (AAUW) adopted a policy of racial non-discrimination, and in 1949 amended its bylaws to allow any woman with a degree from an approved institution admission into local branches, regardless of the local branch members’ approval. Many local branches resisted this move, which had the effect of allowing African American women admission. In St Louis, Missouri, the move caused a rift within the local branch. The St Louis group divided into the St Louis Branch of the American Association of University Women and The College Club of St Louis, and the split prompted a lawsuit over the groups’ property (Graham v Kirchner 1956, Missouri Supreme Court). This research explores the historical process of racial desegregation in St Louis in the context of a voluntary, progressive women's organization and reflects on the power of women's organizations to promote social change. This case study sheds light on the strength of social norms regarding racial segregation in a city in a ‘border state’ without the legally entrenched segregation found in many other southern cities during this time.