Procera Seeds Research Articles

A Versatile Bio-packing Based on Natural Extract from Calotropis procera a Sustainable Alternative for Agriculture and Biofouling Applications

Background and objective: Despite the situation in the north of Minas Gerais being semiarid, this region presents a plant with low water demand, Calotropis procera. This plant has a great potential as an antifungicide supply, although other important characteristics. In this context, this research proposes an extraction of natural material from C. procera to produce a bio-packing for agriculture and anticorrosive applications as a sustainable alternative. This biopacking is eco-friendly, low-cost, widely available, and quickly produced. The antifungicide and anticorrosive activity were evaluated as the control of fruit ripening based on in vivo tests. Materials and methods: This research is based on the production of bio-packing based on natural extracts from C. procera seeds for agricultural and anticorrosive applications. The material was characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and surface contact angle. In addition, in vitro and in vivo biological experiments were performed to analyze the antifungal activity and control of fruit ripening. Moreover, the anticorrosive property was also analysed. Results: The results indicated the presence of proteins in the composition of the product based on natural extract, which may contribute to the antifungal and anticorrosive characteristics. Furthermore, the natural extract demonstrated anticorrosive protection in simulated seawater. The in vivo analysis of bananas showed that the extract concentration of 50 μL mL-1 presented the best results, controlling the fruit ripening and protecting against diseases. Conclusion: Thus, for the first time, these products extracted from C. procera seeds presented a great future for applications as a versatile action for agriculture and anticorrosive applications.

The influence of seed transfer distance on the growth of Calotropis procera (ait) provenances in dry lands of South Eastern Kenya

In a study to domesticate the species Calotropis procera, for wool production in drylands, investigations were done to determine the effects of seed transfer distance on the growth of the species in a typical farm setting. The objectives of the research were to determine the growth of three provenances of C. procera and to determine the influence of seed transfer distance on the growth parameters. Diameter and height data were used to generate horizontal and vertical growth curves respectively and further subjected to Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) to isolate existence of significant differences across the three provenances. Pearson correlation analysis was used to establish existence of relationships across the growth parameters. Results showed that C. procera is a multi-stemmed plant. Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) showed no significant statistical differences (p<0.5) in diameter growth though Pearson correlation analysis, showed strong positive correlations (Pearson, p<0.01) between branching and DBH Test of homogeneity of variances showed significant statistical differences (p<0.5) in vertical growth The study concluded that C. procera is a multi-stemmed plant that can reach a height of 4.48m and a diameter of 7.4cm in two years. It is recommended that C. procera seeds for raising nursery stock should be sourced from the nearest source possible. This will reduce the environmental and climatic effects associated with long distance seed transfers and ensure the species benefits from home-site advantages.

Evaluation of Nutrients in Leaves and Seeds of Calotropis Procera (linn)

Calotropis procera has been widely explored in ethnomedicine to cure several ailments such as leprosy, fever, elephantiasis, menorrhagia, and snakebite. It is also used as a purgative, anthelmintic, anticoagulant, anticancer, antipyretic, analgesic, and carminative. In addition to its traditional use as coagulants, the leaves and seeds of Calotropis procera could be used in food fortifications to combat nutrient deficiencies as reflected in its bioactive components. The increase in its use might be associated with the level of many bioactive components, which provide nutritional and health benefits. Thus, the leaves and seeds were analyzed for their bioactive components and characterized for nutrient values using the procedures of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists.
 The chemical analyses results showed that the leaf and the seed contained (g/100 g dry weight) moisture (8.11g, 9.53g), crude protein (26.69g, 14.48g), crude fiber (7.54, 15.73), crude fat (21.70, 6.29), ash (5.32, 3.69) and carbohydrate (30.64, 50.29), respectively. The leaves and seeds contained zinc (1.20, 0.60 mg/100 g), potassium (33.60, 30.30 mg/100 g) and iron (36.90, 12.90 mg/100g), respectively. The fatty acids profile revealed that the leaves and the seed oils contained a low level of saturated palmitic acid (3.01, 7.70 g/100g) and a high level of monounsaturated oleic acid (10.31, 27.90 g/100g) and polyunsaturated acids (11.63, 18.53 g/100g), respectively.
 It is established that the chemical compounds in the Calotropis procera seeds and leaves could be beneficial for therapeutic and dietary purposes. Thus, it can be accepted that the Calotropis procera plant may be used as medicine and food fortificants.

Effectiveness of Some Plant Extracts against the Two-Spotted Spider Mites, Tetranychus urticae Koch Under Laboratory And Greenhouse Conditions (Acari: Tetranychidae).

The present study was carried out to investigate the effect of five plant extracts, Limoniastrum guyonianum Del., Zygophyllum album L., Calotropis procera (Ait.), Thymelaea hirsuta (L.) Endl and Dodonaea viscosa L. at the concentrations 0.01 and 0.005 %. The toxic effect of these concentrations was tested against adult females of the Two-spottedd spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch (TSSM) 24, 48 and 72 h after treatment under laboratory conditions. The results showed that, after 72 h, the highest mortality 93.33% was recorded by treatment with seeds of C. procera followed by leaves of D. viscosa 86.67% at the concentration of 0.01%. At the concentration 0.005%, the highest mortality was 66.67% by C. procera (seed extract). Under greenhouse conditions, after 72 h at 0.01 % and 0.005 % concentrations were giving a highly percent reduction of hatchability for eggs at C. procera (seeds extract) with an average 95 % and 79.49 % respectively. Also, of larva stages was recorded highly percent mortality at 0.01% and 0.005 % concentration of C. procera (seeds extract) 91.67 % and 70% respectively. In nymphs, the highest mortality percentage with C. procera (seeds) at the same concentrations after 72 h were recorded 93.75% and 71.43 % respectively. In adult females was found the highest mortality percentage in C. procera (seeds extract) at 0.01% and 0.005 % concentration after 72 h was recorded 91.67% and 76.92 %. Analytical studies proved that major amounts of phenolic compounds were detected in T. hirsuta catechin, gallic and chlorogenic acids at the concentrations 1609.24, 1066.78 and 839.67 µg/g., respectively. In C. procera (seeds extract) it was found that phenolic compounds were lower than T. hirsuta, while coumaric acid has been only identified in C. procera seeds (21.08 µg/ g. plant). In D. viscosa, phenolic compounds were represented by chlorogenic acid (267.41 µg/ g plant) and gallic acid (84.43 µg/ g plant), while catechin was not detected. The highest mortality percentage of T. urticae treated with seeds extracts may be due to the appearance of coumaric acid, which was found in seeds more than other extracts.

Toxicity, cytotoxicity and biological activities of seeds of <i>Carapa procera</i> (DC), a native oil tree

Carapa procera is a native tree which seeds are intensively used for oil extraction. So this study deals with the identification of secondary metabolites, the toxicity and cytotoxicity of C. procera hydroalcohol extracts and their estrogenic and androgenic activities. The chemical constituents of C. procera extracts were determined by Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) methods. The toxicity and cytotoxicity were respectively evaluated by the OECD Guideline 425 “Up and Down procedure” (UDP) and the brine shrimp lethality test. Estrogenic and androgenic activities were evaluated by uterotrophic and Hershberger tests and also by in vitro tests, with the yeast assay and MVLN luceferase assay. The MeOH/H 2 O extracts of C. procera seeds revealed the presence of steroidal glycosides, triterpene, flavonoids and polyphenols. The DCM fraction revealed the presence of triterpene esters & steroid and carotenoids. The MeOH/H 2 O has, by in vivo tests, slight toxic effects with mice and shows a lethal effect against the crustacean larvae by in vitro test. The extracts of C. procera seeds also show, by in vivo and in vitro tests an estrogenic and anti-androgenic activities. The results show with the presence of flavonoids, polyphenols and glycosides steroids estrogenic and anti-androgenic activities. The seeds of C. procera contain some phytochemicals, which can disrupt or reinforce endocrine function. Keywords : Carapa procera , native oil tree, seeds, toxicity, estrogenic, antiandrogenic

Seeds of Calotropis procera Treated With Essential Oils of Copaifera langsdorffii Desf. and Syzygium aromaticum L.

The Silk Flower (Calotropis procera) is widely used by farmers in the Northeast region, due to the adaptation of the climatic and soil conditions of the semi-arid region, but the incidence of pathogens has reduced the physiological and sanitary quality standards acceptable for sexual propagation of these plants in the field. Thus, the objective of this research was to verify the effects of the Copaíba (C. langsdorffii) and Cravo (S. aromaticum) oils on the health and physiological quality of silk flower seeds (C. procera) harvested in the city of Tacima, PB. The treatments were constituted by Copaíba (C. langsdorffii) and Cravo (S. aromaticum) essential oils at concentrations of 0.5; 1; 1.5; 2% and the fungicide Captan® (240 g, i.a. 100 kg-1 seed). The control 0 (zero) corresponded only to the immersion of the seeds in distilled and sterilized water (ADE). In the evaluation of sanity, the method of incubation on filter paper (Blotter test) was performed, using twenty replicates of 10 seeds for each treatment. The physiological quality was evaluated by the germination test (G%), first germination count (FGC), germination speed index (GSI) and seedling dry mass (SDM). A microflora composed mainly of Alternaria sp. (52%), Fusarium sp. (70%), Helminthosporium sp. (40%), Cladosporium sp. (50%), Curvularia sp. (20%) and Nigrospora sp. (5%). The essential oils considerably reduced the percentage of fungi associated with silk flower seeds, but there was moderate phytotoxic effect under the germination and vigor of C. procera seeds.

Cold stratification complements cold water in enhancing the germination of Juniperus procera seeds

<p>Enhancing seed germination is a fundamental step for conservation of plant genetic resources but less is understood specifically for endangered native and endemic tree species in the tropics.</p><p>We examined how cold stratification and application of different treatments impact the germination of <em>Juniperus procera</em> seeds. We collected seeds from nine different altitudes of Managesha forest, Oromia region, Ethiopia. The seeds were stored in gene bank at -10<sup>o</sup>C for four years for cold stratification as a dormancy breaking method. We employed three treatments: cold water, 70<sup>o</sup>C hot water and 100 ml of 1% H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2 </sub>to setup germination experiment in completely randomized design with four replications (50 seeds each). The germinated seeds were counted every fifth day until no more germinated seeds were observed. We analyzed data using two-way ANOVA and the significant for mean difference among altitudinal gradients was computed with Tukey HSD tests. The germination percent from cold stratified and moistened in cold water was higher than either from control, soaking in 70<sup>o</sup>C hot water or applying 1% H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2 </sub>solution. Moreover, the germination percent varied among the altitudinal gradients for all the three treatments. At some altitudes, the germination was higher or lower consistently throughout control and the three treatments. The variations in altitudinal gradient and the associated environmental factors have triggered the differences in germinability of <em>J. procera</em> seeds. Our overall results suggest that cold stratification can complement cold water to break the dormancy and enhance the germination of <em>J. procera</em> seeds.</p>

Identification of pests and assessment of their damage on Carapa procera and Lophira lanceolata in Burkina Faso, West Africa

Nontimber forest products are a source of income for women in rural African communities. However, these products are frequently damaged by insect pests. The present study investigates the diversity and damage rates of insect pests that attack Carapa procera seeds and Lophira lanceolata fruits. The experiment was set up in western Burkina Faso and, for C. carapa, consisted of pests collected from seeds that had fallen to the ground and from stockpiled seeds. For L. lanceolata, pests were collected from fruits on the trees, and on the ground. The collected samples were sent to the laboratory to estimate the proportion of damaged seeds/fruits and rear the insects. The results showed that Ephestia spp., Tribolium castaneum, Oryzeaphilus spp., and Tenebroides mauritanicus were the pests of Carapa procera seeds and Lophira lanceolata fruits. Ephestia spp. was recorded as the main pest of both C. procera and L. lanceolata, whereas T. castaneum was only detected from seeds of L. lanceolata. For C. procera, the stocks were the most infested (29 %) by Ephestia spp. The infestation rate of fruits of L. lanceolata by Ephestia spp. on trees (31.42 ± 3.75 %) was less than the rate of fruits by T. castaneum on the ground (44.00 ± 3.5 %). The different body sizes of Ephestia spp. may indicate the occurrence of two putative species, one from C. procera and another one from L. lanceolata. This work provides important information that could contribute to the setting up of a local-scale sustainable management framework for oil tree pests in Burkina Faso and surrounding countries.

CARDINAL TEMPERATURES FOR GERMINATION OF THE MEDICINAL ANDDESERT PLANT, Calotropis procera

ABSTRACT Calotropis procera, Apocynaceae, is a wild perennial shrub that originated in the Persian deserts. It is known to provide key resources in degraded ecosystems to about 80 animal species. C. procera is regenerated by seed and produces lots of small seeds that are dispersed by wind; nonetheless, its density is very low. The purpose of this study is to estimate the cardinal temperatures including the base, optimum, and maximum temperatures of Calotropis procera looking at two different ecotypes in the Iranian desert. The germination behavior of C. procera seeds was tested at temperature regimens of 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40oC and was analyzed using linear regression models. The rate of germination increased between base and optimum thermal conditions, and decreased between optimum and maximum thermal conditions. The base, optimum and maximum temperatures for germination of C. procera seeds were estimated at 19.10, 30.75 and 47.80 oC for the Fars and 20.00, 31.82 and 49.69oC for the Zahedan desert, respectively. Temperature and germination were rated to determine the seeding dates of the C. procera. Overall, cardinal temperatures for germination were dependent on local climate characteristics for the range of adaptations in plant growth of the given species.

English

Calotropis procera (giant milkweed) is a hardy xerophytic plant, which is distributed globally in many countries and has important economic and ecological functions. The present study aimed at estimating the effect of temperature, salinity and time of fruit dehiscence on the seed germination and seedling morphology of giant milkweed in urban habitats. Seeds were collected early (in June) and late (in December) from pre-dehiscent (EPRD, LPRD) and post-dehiscent (EPOD, LPOD) fruits. Mature seeds were 100% viable, while premature seeds did not germinate. The highest germination and mean time to germination was attained in full dark followed by dark/light, while no germination occurred at complete light. A significant difference between seeds from pre- and post-dehiscent fruits was assessed, while no significant difference between early and late seeds. Maximum germination was at 25 and 30°C, while germination was inhibited at 35°C, which demonstrates that temperature is one of the critical factors for giant milkweed seed germination. Moreover, salinity more than 2000 mg l-1 NaCl inhibited seed germination. It is likely that high temperature, direct light conditions and high salinity are the limiting factors for the establishment of giant milkweed seeds. The germination of C. procera seeds was significantly affected when germinated with Trigonella foenum-vulgare with the reduction of germination from 100 to 34%, while the later plant was not affected. C. procera is considered as an important medicinal plant; therefore, our results provide useful information for its management under different environmental conditions. Key words : Giant milkweed, seed morphology, fruit dehiscence, germination time and viability.

Seed bank longevity and age to reproductive maturity of Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T. Aiton in the dry tropics of northern Queensland

Understanding the reproductive biology of Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T. Aiton, an invasive weed of northern Australia, is critical for development of effective management strategies. Two experiments are reported on. In Experiment 1 seed longevity of C. procera seeds, exposed to different soil type (clay and river loam), pasture cover (present and absent) and burial depth (0, 2.5, 10 and 20 cm) treatments were examined. In Experiment 2 time to reach reproductive maturity was studied. The latter experiment included its sister species, C. gigantea (L.) W.T. Aiton, for comparison and two separate seed lots were tested in 2009 and 2012 to determine if exposure to different environmental conditions would influence persistence. Both seed lots demonstrated a rapid decline in viability over the first 3 months and declined to zero between 15 and 24 months after burial. In Experiment 1, longevity appeared to be most influenced by rainfall patterns and associated soil moisture, burial depth and soil type, but not the level of pasture cover. Experiment 2 showed that both C. procera and C. gigantea plants could flower once they had reached an average height of 85 cm. However, they differed significantly in terms of basal diameter at first flowering with C. gigantea significantly smaller (31 mm) than C. procera (45 mm). On average, C. gigantea flowered earlier (125 days vs 190 days) and set seed earlier (359 days vs 412 days) than C. procera. These results suggest that, under similar conditions to those that prevailed in the present studies, land managers could potentially achieve effective control of patches of C. procera in 2 years if they are able to kill all original plants and treat seedling regrowth frequently enough to prevent it reaching reproductive maturity. This suggested control strategy is based on the proviso that replenishment of the seed bank is not occurring from external sources (e.g. wind and water dispersal).

Evaluation of Proximate, Mineral and Phytochemical Compositions of Carapa procera (Family Meliaceae)

This study was conducted to evaluate the medicinal value of C. procera seeds. The seeds of C. procera were collected from the Tsampoko village, district of Gamboma, in northern area of Congo on 14 March 2013. Nuts were dried in an oven at 70°C for 24 h and milled into powder. The powder was used for proximate, mineral and phytochemical analysis. The proximate analysis of the seed revealed high moisture (47.92%), fat (23.14%), carbohydrate (17.13%) and energy value (1285.60 Kg/100 g) while the crude protein (8.13%) and the ash (3.68%) were found to be low. The mineral analysis showed that Phosphorus (15.72%) was the most abundant element, followed by iron (2.82%) and potassium (1.23%). Calcium and magnesium were found in low concentrations (0.22 and 0.23%, respectively) while sodium and manganese were detected in trace quantities (0.01-0.02%). The phytochemical screening of crude solvent extracts revealed the presence in methanol of alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, saponins, steroids, tannins, triterpenoids, anthocyanins and phenols. In carbon tetrachloride steroids and tannins were not detected. Anthraquinones were absent in all the screened extracts of both solvents. Quantitative analysis of the seeds showed high alkaloid, flavonoid and phenolic concentrations (5.67±0.18, 5.98±1.38 and 7.46±0.15%, respectively) while saponins and anthocyanins were detected in low quantities (0.92±0.10 and 2.01±0.12%).

Seed Oil Content and Fatty Acid Composition from Different Populations of Calotropis procera (Aiton) W. T. Aiton (Apocynaceae)

AbstractCalotropis procera is a soft‐wooded, evergreen, perennial shrub species which grows in a variety of environments including dry habitats such as the Brazilian semi‐arid region. This study aimed to evaluate the variation in the oil content and fatty acid composition of C. procera seeds from four climatically different locations in the state of Pernambuco in the northeast of Brazil. The seed oil content of C. procera ranged from 19.7 to 24.0 %. Five main fatty acids were identified, with a predominance of unsaturated linoleic and oleic acids (approximately 70 %). Our results suggesting that environmental conditions influenced the seed oil biosynthesis of C. procera, because the localities with high temperature and low precipitation had increased oil content and total biosynthesis of saturated fatty acids. Multivariate analysis showed high similarity among three localities which share certain physiographic characteristics and climatic conditions such as temperature and precipitation values. The oil profile of C. procera presents interesting features that highlight its potential as a future alternative for the biodiesel market, especially in semi‐arid regions.

Germination responses of the invasive Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br. (Apocynaceae): comparisons with seeds from two ecosystems in northeastern Brazil

Life history traits are considered key indicators of plant invasibility. Among them, the germination behavior of seeds is of major relevance because it is influenced by environmental factors of invaded ecosystem. Here, we investigated how seed traits and seed tolerance to environmental factors on seed germination of Calotropis procera vary depending on the invaded ecosystems in northeastern Brazil. We have tested seeds from two vegetation types - Caatinga and Restinga - to different levels of light intensity, salinity, and water stress. Previous to those experiments, seed-set and morphometric analysis were carried out for both studied populations. We have observed a higher seed-set in Caatinga. Seeds produced in this ecosystem had lower seed moisture content. Seeds from Restinga showed lower germination time when light intensity decreased. We observed a reduction in both the germinability and the synchronization index with decreasing osmotic potential and increasing salinity. Nevertheless, both populations exhibited changes in photoblastism when seeds were submitted to water and saline stress. In conclusion, C. procera seeds are tolerant to environmental factors assessed. That characteristic ensures the colonization success and wide distribution of this plant species in the studied ecosystems.

Piscicidal effects of Albizzia procera (Benth) seeds, Swientenia mahagoni (Jacq) and Azadirachta indica (A. juss) seed kernels and Camellia sinensis (Wiild) seed cake extracts on Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters) and Channa punctatus (Bloch.)

Piscicidal effects of distilled water and fifty percent ethyl alcohol extracts of Albizzia procera seeds, Swietenia mahagoni and Azadirachta indica seed kernels and Camellia sinensis seed cake were bioassayed upon Oreochromis mossambicus and Channa punctatus under normal laboratory conditions. Due to the toxic effects, the piscicide treated fishes showed irritability, excitement and gradual loss of balance. Mortality in both the species showed dose dependent increase with increasing concentrations. From the LC50 values, the relative toxicities of the plant extracts for both the fishes were found to be A. procera seeds > C. sinensis seed cake > S. mahagoni seed kernels> A. indica seed kernel extracts. The degree of tolerance of the test fishes to any of the two extracts was in the order C. punctatus > O. mossambicus. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/cujbs.v4i1.13385 The Chittagong Univ. J. B. Sci.,Vol. 4(1&2):41-52, 2009

Composition of Azadirachta indica and Carapa procera (Meliaceae) seed oils and cakes obtained after oil extraction

Samples of Azadirachta indica and Carapa procera seeds collected in Benin have been analyzed and the results are compared to scarce literature data. The extracted lipids (44.0 and 61.5%, respectively) were examined for fatty acid composition by gas chromatography. The most interesting feature is the very high oil content and the prominent concentration of oleic acid (59.1%) of C. procera seed oil. Oleic (43.5%), linoleic (18.7%), palmitic (17.8%) and stearic (17.4%) acids were the predominant fatty acids in A. indica seed oil, while palmitic (21.1%) and oleic acids (59.1%) were the major acids in C. procera seed oil, this leading to saponification values of 167 and 188 and iodine values of 75 and 69, respectively. Among the unsaponifiable fraction (1.2 and 1.6%, respectively), whose composition has never been reported to date – except the sterol fraction of A. indica – the major sterol is β-sitosterol (77.7 and 61.2%). Tocols (298 and 92ppm respectively) show α-tocopherol and γ-tocopherol as major components (30.8 and 67.3%; 32.5 and 12.2%, respectively). Regarding the cake, results show the interesting content of proteins (31.4 and 20.2%) comprising 17 amino acids with the prominent concentration of arginine, leucine, aspartic and glutamic acids and a noticeable amount of sugars (9.6 and 12.4%). Total ash in cake amounts 5.3 and 8.3%, primarily N and K, but C. procera shows a noticeable amount of Na (1574ppm). Possible uses of oils and cakes are discussed.

Do plant-community-based grazing regimes lead to epizoochorous dispersal of high proportions of target species?

The contribution of large-herbivore epizoochory to the transfer of seeds within and between areas is thought to be significant. But often seeds of ubiquitous species are dispersed, which may enhance ruderalization processes. In order to study the dispersal of target species by sheep, we employed a community-based grazing approach followed by intra- and inter-area sheep transfers (maximum transfer distance 3 km). In case of inter-area transfers, well-developed target communities of an open inland sand ecosystem are used as “source”, linked to less-developed sand habitats (“sink”) via sheep. Also other factors determining which species become dispersed under field conditions were tested: seed surface structure, seed mass, plant seed-releasing height and animal behaviour. Finally the influence of animal movement on seed detachment and the actual arrival of seeds within a “sink” were studied. Sheep transfers resulted in the dispersal of 56 seed species, dominated by Red List (seven species) and other target species. Quantitatively, most transported seeds belonged to target species, whereas graminoid competitors were highly under-represented. Morphological traits enhance the attachment probability regardless of seed mass. But for seeds without these epizoochory-facilitating traits, mass seems to affect attachment negatively. Plant height affected the number of species present in sheep coats but not the seed quantities. Probably certain species in the vegetation produced large numbers of seeds, e.g. low-growing Medicago minima with seed surface structures and high-growing species Verbascum phlomoides without seed surface structures. Also, although transfer half-times were three times lower than grazing half-times, naturally attached Stipa capillata and Agrimonia procera seeds showed no significant detachment rates during transfer, whereas considerable losses were found during grazing. Other 3-km sheep transfers did not result in significant losses of either epizoochorously transported seed or species quantities. Our study shows that community-based grazing can lead to the dispersal of especially target species. Besides that, different habitat fragments can be connected to each other via sheep without significant seed losses along the way.

Germination of Juniperus procera seeds in response to stratification and smoke treatments, and detection of insect-damaged seeds with VIS + NIR spectroscopy

Seeds of Juniperus procera collected from five provenances across its geographic range in Ethiopia were subjected to cold-moist stratification at 5°C or 10°C for 6–12 weeks. The effect of aqueous smoke solution in overcoming the light requirement for germination, and the potential of visible (VIS) and near infrared reflectance (NIR) spectroscopy for sorting sound and insect-damaged seeds were also investigated. Highly significant differences in germination were detected among provenances (P < 0.0001) and stratification periods (P < 0.0001), but not between temperature regimes (P=0.111). Seeds from the south and southeast distribution ranges had higher percentage germination after 6 weeks of stratification than seeds collected from north, northwest and central ranges of distribution. The smoke treatment did not affect germination regardless of whether the seeds were exposed to light. Exposure to light increased germination capacity three fold. Sound and damaged seeds were distinguished with 90% accuracy using VIS + NIR spectroscopy. It can be concluded that dormancy in juniper seeds varies with provenances, and cold stratification for 6 weeks alleviates dormancy in some seed lots. Tentatively, smoke treatment seems ineffective in overcoming photo-dormancy in juniper seeds. VIS + NIR spectroscopy has demonstrated a great potential for sorting damaged seeds, thereby upgrading seed lot purity.

Tropical rodents change rapidly germinating seeds into long‐term food supplies

Seed‐hoarding vertebrates may survive yearly periods of food scarcity by storing seeds during the preceding fruiting season. It is poorly understood why rodents creating long‐term reserves, especially those in the tropics, incorporate seeds from plant species that germinate rapidly and hence seem unsuitable for long‐term storage. We carried out a series of experiments to understand why red acouchies (Myoprocta exilis) scatter‐hoardCarapa procera(Meliaceae) seeds, which lack dormancy and germinate rapidly. Hypotheses tested were: (1) even germinated seeds are still significant long‐term energy reserves for acouchies, (2) acouchies use the seeds only as short‐term supplies, and (3) acouchies manipulate the seeds to slow down germination. The first two hypotheses were not supported; seed reserves were rapidly depleted during experimental planting, and acouchies did use seeds for long‐term storage. We did find support for the third hypothesis. Acouchies intervened in germination by removing the protruding radicle and epicotyl after which they re‐cached seeds. Pruning stopped further seedling development, yet the pruned seeds did not decay. The cotyledons apparently stayed alive and physiologically active as “zombie seeds” that only formed undifferentiated calli. Pruned seeds were suitable for long‐term storage, with negligible loss of endosperm over time. Pruning was most effective after sprouting of the epicotyl, and germinating seeds were most susceptible to pruning during two weeks upon emergence. Acouchies actively managed their food supplies and must continuously survey for germinating seeds to timely intervene in seed reserve depletion, within the brief period of seedling emergence. We suggest that the trees use the rodents to achieve seed dispersal, and gain from imperfect intervention in germination by the rodents. Because scatter‐hoarding rodents and large‐seeded plant species with similar germination co‐occur in tropical forests world‐wide, it is plausible that the phenomenon of seed pruning to preserve seeds is more general than currently appreciated.

Seed germination responses of four afromontane tree species to red/far-red ratio and temperature

The germination response of Cordia africana, Juniperus procera, Acacia abyssinica, and Faidherbia albida seeds to continuous exposure of various red to far-red ratios (R/FR) and constant-temperatures of 15, 20, 25 and 30 °C were studied. Germination of C. africana seeds was strongly inhibited at low R/FR and it appears that this species has evolved a light quality sensing mechanism that prevents seed germination beneath leaf canopies. The germination probability of C. africana increased as temperature increased from 15 to 30 °C. R/FR, temperature, and their interaction significantly affected germination of J. procera. Seeds of this species displayed a complex dormancy mechanism and germinated only in a narrow range of temperatures and R/FR. The effect of R/FR on germination of J. procera was most pronounced and the highest germination probability was recorded at 20 °C. The germination probability of F. albida seeds increased with rising temperature (from 15 to 30 °C), but there was no significant effect of light. At high temperatures, mean germination time in this species decreased with increasing R/FR, but increased with rising R/FR at low temperatures. Neither R/FR, temperature, nor their interaction had a significant effect on the germination of A. abyssinica seeds. The results suggest that deep sowing of J. procera and especially C. africana seeds, as well as covering and shading of their seed beds with leaf litter in nurseries, should be avoided. By proper regulation of light and temperature conditions, prolonged nursery germination of J. procera seeds can be reduced.