Land Subsidence Problems Research Articles

Effect of cross-correlated hydraulic conductivity and compression index on nonlinear consolidation in randomly heterogeneous highly compressible aquitards

The problem of land subsidence due to groundwater pumping in highly compressible, randomly heterogenous aquitards with stress-dependent parameters is analyzed through one-dimensional Monte Carlo numerical simulations of nonlinear groundwater flow and consolidation. The natural logarithm of hydraulic conductivity (Y) and compression index (Cc) are considered spatially cross-correlated random variables. A stochastic simulation method based on a bivariate normal copula was applied to generate positive, negative, and uncorrelated realizations of the two random variables. The results show that when Y and Cc are correlated random parameters, the ensemble average total settlement is consistently larger (between 13% and 40% for the synthetic cases tested) than the total settlement obtained when the parameters are deterministic (perfectly known). In addition, the results of negative and no correlation between Y and Cc are similar in terms of the ensemble average and variance of total settlement, while positive correlation leads to larger values of total settlement and its variance. The stochastic approach employed here allows incorporating the uncertainty in the parameters in the simulation of the subsidence process, which is relevant for geotechnical engineering, design of structures and groundwater management.

Assessments of Land Subsidence in the Tehran Metropolitan Using Satellite Radar Interferometry Technique

Background and objective Many cities in the world have land subsidence problems because of environmental issues related to urban development. The arid and semi-arid climatic conditions prevailing in most of the interior regions of Iran and the need for the increasing industrial, agricultural, and drinking water exploitation from underground water resources, as well as urban development, have increased the occurrence of land subsidence in Iran, especially in the metropolis of Tehran. This study aims to assess land subsidence in Tehran, Iran, using the satellite radar interferometry (InSAR) technique. Method In this research, 31 images of Sentinel-1 were processed using the time series of persistent scatter interferometry (PSI) in 2022, and a map of the average annual rate of land subsidence in Tehran metropolis was prepared. Finally, after validating the results of interferometry with GPS station observations, the relationship between land subsidence and exploitation of underground water resources was examined as the most important factor in ground surface changes in the study area. Results The findings showed a decreasing trend in land subsidence from plain to urban areas. The highest land subsidence, with a rate of -43 mm per year occurred in the southern and southwestern parts of Tehran. Districts 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20, which comprise about 26% of Tehran’s population, were experiencing land subsidence. The drop in the water level of observation wells was considerable in the areas where the highest rate of land subsidence occurred. Another finding of the research was the decrease of the underground water level from the north to the south of Tehran, indicating that the water depth in the southern areas of Tehran decreased due to human activities such as water pumping. Conclusion There is an increasing pressure in the aquifer through pumping water from wells in the study area for various industrial, agricultural and drinking water uses which has led to the increase in the occurrence of land subsidence.

Research on the analysis and management measures of land subsidence caused by groundwater exploitation in Tianjin, China

Since the 20th century, there has been an increasing reliance on groundwater due to the rapid development of agriculture and industry. This has resulted in the exploitation of groundwater in large quantities, leading to global land subsidence problems. Tianjin is one of the cities where this problem first emerged, but few studies and surveys have been conducted. As a result, the lack of management of groundwater extraction has caused the issue of land subsidence to become more prominent in recent years. By investigating and collating global research on land subsidence problems caused by groundwater extraction, it is concluded that mathematical and numerical methods, global information systems, remote sensing, and other technologies can be utilized to monitor and predict groundwater levels. Regional management measures can then be developed based on simulation results. However, the application of such technology in Tianjin is insufficient, and there is a need to strengthen the connection between management measures and research data analysis results.

Urbanization and land subsidence: multi-decadal investigation combined SBAS-InSAR and multi-factors in Shanghai, China

Situated in the Yangtze River Delta’s alluvial plain, Shanghai has faced intensified land subsidence problems since the economic reforms of the 1990s. However, previous studies have lacked long time-series land subsidence monitoring and an analysis of multifactorial interactions in Shanghai over the past years. This study analyzed Shanghai’s land subsidence from 1992 to 2020 using SAR data from ERS-1/2, ENVISAT ASAR, and Sentinel-1A, applying the SBAS-InSAR technique. The geo-detector method was used to identify key factors affecting land subsidence, including groundwater, urban structure, metro development, and population dynamics. The results showed that (1) the utilization of multi-sensor SAR data enables the comprehensive analysis of urban land subsidence over an extended temporal series, facilitating the acquisition of its spatiotemporal distribution; (2) the extent of subsidence in Shanghai was gradually spreading from the core to the outskirts, and the rate of subsidence was gradually decreasing during 1992-2020 period; (3) groundwater was the most influential factor on land subsidence, and the interaction between groundwater and metro had a stronger influence on land subsidence.

Land Subsidence Policy in the Context of Good Governance Principles (Comparing Indonesia and Japan)

Land subsidence poses a significant environmental challenge globally, fueled mainly by anthropogenic activities such as excessive groundwater extraction, rampant overdevelopment, and alterations in soil geological structures. This issue has far-reaching consequences, including infrastructure deterioration, heightened flood vulnerabilities, and severe threats to both the environment and local communities. The city of Jakarta, Indonesia, has experienced a particularly pronounced impact from land subsidence since the 1980s. This study delves into the governmental responses of Indonesia and Japan to address the complex problem of land subsidence, emphasizing their adherence to principles of good governance, including transparency, accountability, and community engagement. The analysis scrutinizes various aspects of policy development, stakeholder participation, funding mechanisms, technological innovations, and the overall efficacy of these measures in mitigating land subsidence. Through a comparative lens, the research seeks to unearth effective strategies and successful policy implementations in both nations. The methodology employed adopts a normative approach, scrutinizing concepts, norms, principles, legal frameworks, and ethical considerations associated with land subsidence policies within the context of good governance. This research contributes to a holistic comprehension of land subsidence management, providing valuable insights into the effectiveness of policies aimed at addressing this critical environmental challenge.

Increasing Risk of Silent Disaster in Uttarakhand Himalaya: An Example from Higher Himalaya

Land subsidence is an abrupt and silent disaster worldwide caused by various factors such as tectonics, nature of rocks and climatic variability etc. It is directly triggered by anthropogenic activities. The Uttarakhand Himalayan province in India has witnessed several earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, droughts, and flash floods/floods in the recent past. Among these incidences landslides frequently occurs in the Himalayan region, particularly during the monsoon season. Seismically, this region falls in seismic zones V and IV due to which area witnesses frequent earthquakes. An attempt was made for preparation of an inventory of land subsidence across the state of Uttarakhand to determine the key factors that are responsible for land subsidence. Previous studies and field evidences suggests that land subsidence events mainly occur due to several factors such as carbonate rocks, topography, tectonics, seismicity, climate, flash floods/floods and reservoir drawdown effect in this region. Furthermore, anthropogenic activities such as mining, underground water, unscientifically civil constructions, inadequate drainage, heavy load on ground/slope, and modification of slope for infrastructure developments aggravates the problem. This study also highlights the problem of ongoing chronic land subsidence in Joshimath town which is situated over an old landslide mass as well as its proximity to Vaikrita Thrust.

Dynamic Monitoring and Analysis of Mining Land Subsidence in Multiple Coal Seams in the Ehuobulake Coal Mine Based on FLAC3D and SBAS-InSAR Technology

Aiming at the land subsidence problem caused by multiple coal seam mining in the Ehuobulake Coal Mine, this paper, considering the geological conditions of the first and fifth layers of coal, adopts the method of combining FLAC3D numerical simulation and SBAS-InSAR technology to analyze the dynamic evolution law of land subsidence amount and range under multiple coal seam repeated mining conditions. The reliability of the technology is verified by the field GPS monitoring data. The results show that, under the mining condition of multiple coal seams in the Ehuobulake Coal Mine, the land subsidence presents obvious asymmetry, and the size and range of the land subsidence in the mining area further increase due to the mining of lower layer coal. FLAC3D simulation results show that the maximum land subsidence is −211.8 mm. The results of SBAS-InSAR monitoring show that the maximum land subsidence is −225 mm, and the land subsidence obtained by the two methods has a high degree of fitting. The method of combining FLAC3D and InSAR technology can accurately and reliably monitor and analyze the land subsidence under the repeated mining of multiple coal seams in the mining area. It can provide effective guidance for the stability analysis of mined-out areas and the prediction of the influence of repeated mining on ground deformation.

Wicked problems and creeping crises: A framework for analyzing governance challenges to addressing environmental land-use problems

Human societies face significant difficulties in the governance of environmental land-use problems. The challenges involved must be thoroughly understood to develop effective and legitimate governance of these often inherently wicked problems. However, in environmental governance literature, governance challenges have been described rather generally, and the characteristic features of different types of problems have not been specified. Drawing on this literature, this paper presents an analytical framework for governance challenges typical of a “wicked problem” and a “creeping crisis”. We empirically illustrate the combined framework by applying it to the environmental land-use problem of land subsidence in the Dutch peatlands. Land subsidence exemplifies a wicked problem because it is neither definable nor solvable. Due to the lack of effective governance, the problem has allowed threats with crisis potential to develop. However, land subsidence represents a “creeping” crisis because, despite the increasing risk of damage, there is little sense of urgency. The case study illustrates that governance challenges posed by such problems often originate from a lack of comprehensive sense-making of these problems’ complexity and that responses, therefore, tend to be counterproductive. Hence, the paper empirically substantiates the need for governance approaches that help achieve the systemic change that is arguably needed to address environmental land-use problems adequately.

Time-Series Prediction of Long-Term Sustainability of Grounds Improved by Chemical Grouting

In the field of geotechnical engineering, the problems of liquefaction and land subsidence are of major concern. In order to mitigate or prevent damage from liquefaction, the chemical injection method is actively used as one of the countermeasures for ground improvement. However, a complete understanding of the long-term sustainability of improved grounds is still unavailable due to a lack of knowledge of the influencing parameters. Thus, the chances of chemical injection accidents cannot be ruled out. In this study, the compressive strength of improved grounds by the granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS), one of the grouting materials used in the chemical injection method, was evaluated and used for a time-series prediction of long-term sustainability. The objective of this study was to evaluate the accuracy and validity of the prediction method by comparing the prediction results with the test results. The study was conducted for three different models, namely, the autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model, the state-space representation (SSR) model, and the machine learning predictive (MLP) model. The MLP model produced the most reliable results for the prediction of long-term data when the input information was sufficient. However, when the input data were scarce, the SSR model produced more reliable results overall. Meanwhile, the ARIMA model generated the highest degree of errors, although it produced the best results compared to the other models depending on the criteria. It is advised that studies should be continued in order to identify the parameters that can affect the long-term sustainability of improved grounds and to simulate various other models to determine the best model to be used in all situations. However, this study can be used as a reference for the selection of the best prediction model for similar patterned input data, in which remarkable changes are observed only at the beginning and become negligible at the end.

The Effect of the “Kampung Bahari” Sustainable Development Program on the Kampong Tambak Lorok Community Semarang

Kampong Tambak Lorok is a place where fishers live on the north coast of Semarang City, facing the problem of tidal flooding and land subsidence. To overcome the issue at Tambak Lorok, the Semarang City Government launched an improvement program with the theme Kampung Bahari. Maritime means life related to the existence of the sea. The program is a medium-term infrastructure improvement. This study aims to determine the effect of infrastructure development through the Kampong Bahari program on the people of Tambak Lorok village. This study used as many as 20 household heads who were selected based on their length of stay in Tambak Lorok Village. The Likert analysis method was used to generate categories and indicators of influence variables based on public perception. Furthermore, the correlation analysis method determines the relationship between infrastructure development results and public perception. The analysis results show that the community strongly supports infrastructure development, especially those relating to the handling of tidal inundation. Communities directly affected by infrastructure development give a higher positive perception value. In addition, infrastructure development has changed the area’s morphology to be more organized and increased opportunities for the community to increase their income and their sustainability.

Land deformation monitoring in the Taiyuan area based on PS-InSAR.

Land subsidence problems have become increasingly prominent. Traditional monitoring methods, such as level measurements, have high costs and low efficiency. Permanent scatterer interferometric synthetic aperture radar (PS-InSAR) has several advantages for land subsidence monitoring based on technological innovations. Aimed at resolving the key problems associated with PS-InSAR technology, the accuracy of three external digital elevations models (DEMs, namely, SRTM, ASTER GDEM, and PleiadesDEM) was analysed and compared. We found that the introduction of ground control points can significantly improve the elevation accuracy of DEMs. Herein, we introduce the specific processing steps and selection of the key parameters for IN-SAR data using the StaMPS software. We discuss the differences between IN-SAR technology and levelling measurements as well as the influence that the different external DEMs have on IN-SAR data. Based on 36 scenes of TerraSAR-X images, we obtained results for land deformation monitoring in Taiyuan City using PS-InSAR technology, which provided satisfactory monitoring results.

Integration of Numerical Models and InSAR Techniques to Assess Land Subsidence Due to Excessive Groundwater Abstraction in the Coastal and Lowland Regions of Semarang City

This study was carried out to assess land subsidence due to excessive groundwater abstraction in the northern region of Semarang City by integrating the application of both numerical models and geodetic measurements, particularly those based on the synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR) technique. Since 1695, alluvial deposits caused by sedimentations have accumulated in the northern part of Semarang City, in turn resulting in changes in the coastline and land use up to the present. Commencing in 1900, excessive groundwater withdrawal from deep wells in the northern section of Semarang City has exacerbated natural compaction and aggravated the problem of land subsidence. In the current study, a groundwater model equivalent to the hydrogeological system in this area was developed using MODFLOW to simulate the hydromechanical coupling of groundwater flow and land subsidence. The numerical computation was performed starting with the steady-state flow model from the period of 1970 to 1990, followed by the model of transient flow and land subsidence from the period of 1990 to 2010. Our models were calibrated with deformation data from field measurements collected from various sources (e.g., leveling, GPS, and InSAR) for simulation of land subsidence, as well as with the hydraulic heads from observation wells for simulation of groundwater flow. Comparison of the results of our numerical calculations with recorded observations led to low RMSEs, yet high R2 values, mathematically indicating that the simulation outcomes are in good agreement with monitoring data. The findings in the present study also revealed that land subsidence arising from groundwater pumping poses a serious threat to the northern part of Semarang City. Two groundwater management measures are proposed and the future development of land subsidence is accordingly projected until 2050. Our study shows quantitatively that the greatest land subsidence occurs in Genuk District, with a magnitude of 36.8 mm/year. However, if the suggested groundwater management can be implemented, the rate and affected area of land subsidence can be reduced by up to 59% and 76%, respectively.

3D stratigraphic modelling of the Bangkok basin using Kriging on borehole data

The Lower Central Plain of Thailand has a deep and highly irregular basement filled with complex layers of alluvial sandy soil and deltaic clay or silt. The Bangkok Metropolitan region with its high level of infrastructure development is located in this plain. With high population density, the problem of land subsidence is critical. This study uses borehole data and the Kriging method to interpolate the data. A detailed 3D stratigraphic model of the basin is presented and several cross sections along two directions. Seventeen layers and the points used for modelling each layer are presented. The model shows eight aquifers in the Bangkok basin, lying between eight layers of clay, and a bottom layer above the basement. The bottom of the lowest aquifer of the Bangkok aquifer system is 610 m deep. The basement extends down to a depth of more than 2000 m in some places. Our 3D model, which extends to the basement, is of interest for mining and site-specific seismic risk analysis. Moreover, our results can be very useful for groundwater and land subsidence studies.

Study of negative skin friction on floating piles foundation due to long-term groundwater extraction in Semarang, Indonesia

The northern Semarang area is prone to a land subsidence problem as the underlying soil consists of a thick layer of normally consolidated clay which also exacerbated by groundwater extraction to meet water demand. The downdrag impact on a pile structure due to the water extraction from two major aquifers that have been used for domestic consumption was investigated. A 3D-finite element analysis was performed to a raft foundation with steel pipe piles. The study used Banger polder data and soil characteristics based on previous investigations. The evaluation was done by comparing the results of negative skin friction (NSF) and total settlement within 50 years period under continuous extraction and one without. From the result, the corner pile located farthest from the pump mobilized NSF of 64% of the total negative skin friction which was highest than middle and interior-corner piles of 28% and 20%, respectively. The groundwater extraction was also found to contribute to almost double the settlement in 50 years in the non-piled area, from 0.24 m without extraction to 0.42 m accounted for. Also, the empirical 0.75Lpile for the maximum neutral point of the pile is in agreement in the result of this study.

Analysis of the impact of the South-to-North water diversion project on water balance and land subsidence in Beijing, China between 2007 and 2020

After operating the middle route of South-to-North Water Diversion Project (SNWDP), the total water transfer to Beijing has exceeded 5.0 km3, bringing significant changes to the water use structure of Beijing. This article compiles historic data from 2007 to 2020 to analyze changes in water circulation, groundwater level, climate factors and subsidence patterns in Beijing following implementation of the middle SNWDP. It is found that the main current pressure on Beijing's water supply has come from improved living standards, the gradual popularization of water-using appliances, and a rapid development of the accommodation and catering industries. An InSAR time series approach was used to map subsidence in Beijing between 2007 and 2020 using satellite images from Sentinel-1A/B, Radarsat-2 and ALOS-1. Climate factors including precipitation and evapotranspiration were estimated using the Penman-Monteith-Leuning Evapotranspiration V2 (PML_V2) product. By compiling ground subsidence data for Beijing and corresponding climate data, the impact of the SNWDP and climate factors on groundwater levels and ground subsidence in Beijing were examined We identified three periods to characterize the changes of surface displacement after implementation of the SNWDP as a) the pre-effect stage, b) the effective stage, and c) the post-effective stage. The contribution of the SNWDP was apparent at the second stage, alleviating the problem of land subsidence to some extent. The ease of subsidence at different stages are accounted for 4%, 26.5%, and 41.7%, respectively, in terms of the mean velocity changes. Based on the result of some general circulation models. Precipitation in the Beijing region is expected to increase over the next decade, implying a greater likelihood of rapid groundwater recovery. However, although groundwater is expected to recover in the long run, climate extremes in the future could possibly challenge the success of SNWDP during certain dry periods.

Monitoring of land subsidence due to excessive groundwater extraction using small baseline subset technique in Konya, Turkey.

Konya, which is located within the Konya Closed Basin, is the most important agricultural production region in Turkey. The future of agriculture is threatened in this region due to the decline in groundwater levels and the intensive agricultural activities that require high water consumption and are not suitable to the climate conditions of the region. In addition to these parameters, the geological structure of Konya also poses various environmental problems such as land subsidence and sinkhole formation. This study aimed to investigate the causes of the land subsidence problem in Konya and its surroundings with the help of the interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) technique and auxiliary data, namely optic, Coordination of Information on the Environment (CORINE), and groundwater monitoring station data. In order to investigate the land subsidence in the study area, 58 Sentinel-1A images acquired between 2014 and 2018 were processed by using the small baseline subset (SBAS) technique. In addition, the time series derived from the SAR data was validated by a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) station located in the study area. The results revealed that severe land subsidence, some of which reached 75 mm/year, occurred in certain areas of the study area over a period of three and a half years. High consistency was found between the land subsidence and the groundwater level change observed in the region, with a cross-correlation of over 95%. Moreover, the temporal and spatial patterns of the cultivated area and urbanization, which are the main reasons for the consumption of groundwater in the region, were revealed using the optic data.

REVIEW OF THE LAND SUBSIDENCE HAZARD IN PEKALONGAN DELTA, CENTRAL JAVA: INSIGHTS FROM THE SUBSURFACE

Land subsidence is a global threat to coastal areas worldwide, including the North Java coastal area. Of many areas experiencing land subsidence in North Java, the rate of land subsidence in Pekalongan has matched the high subsidence rates usually found in big cities. The rate of land subsidence in Pekalongan far exceeds the sea-level rise, resulting in a looming threat of land loss. The devastating impacts of land subsidence are the manifestation of its subsurface movement. Therefore, it is essential to understand the subsurface to elucidate the mechanism of land subsidence. Previous studies on land subsidence in Pekalongan are mainly related to subsidence rate monitoring and have not elaborated on the subsurface condition. This paper reviews the Pekalongan subsurface geology based on available literature to provide insight into the land subsidence problem. The results revealed that the land subsidence occurs in the recent alluvial plain of Pekalongan, consisting of a 30-70 m thick compressible deposit. Possible mechanisms of land subsidence arise from natural compaction, over-exploitation of confined groundwater, and increased built areas. As the seismicity of the study area is low, tectonic influence on land subsidence is considered negligible. It is expected that the offshore, nearshore, and swamp deposits are still naturally compacting. As the surface water supply is minimal, over-exploitation of groundwater resources from the deltaic and Damar Formation aquifers occurs. In the end, future research direction is proposed to reduce the impacts of the subsidence hazard.

Mississippi River Delta: Land Subsidence and Coastal Erosion

The Mississippi River Delta is a major center for transportation, industry, human population and ecosystem services. Critical areas included energy production, navigation, fisheries, flood protection of coastal communities, and restoration of damaged habitats. Complex environmental management in a great river system requires broad-base complex science, engineering and monitoring. A major national and state objective has become the restoration of the Mississippi River Delta that is threatened by subsidence, flooding, storm surges, compaction, oil extraction and gas extraction. The primary objectives of the paper are to document the landscape and geological properties of the Mississippi River Delta which have contributed to the successful resource and economic development of a historically-rich region of North America and to document the natural resource and environmental risks to the Mississippi River Delta. Economic and urban development of the Mississippi River Delta by the oil and gas industry and creation of levees by the USACE has contributed to land subsidence problems. Environmental challenges include land subsidence as a result of the pumping of vast amounts of oil and gas, the lack of sediment deposition in the Mississippi River Delta as a result of a system of levees, coastal erosion impacts of hurricanes, disposal of untreated and treated wastewater, periodic flooding and water pollution.

Assessment of land subsidence as an environmental threat facing Dammam city, eastern Saudi Arabia based on soil geotechnical parameters using downhole seismic approach

To meet the increasing in population, urbanization and public transportation needs of Dammam big city a new transportation infrastructure network is planned and being developed. In the same time, environmental threats of land subsidence on network has been raised and needs to be addressed.Site characterization for designing this transportation lines is crucial to ensure reliable and economic substructure design, because weak site soil conditions may cause land subsidence problems. Downhole seismic (DS) testing is commonly used to determine compression wave (P) and shear wave (S) velocity profiles in geotechnical engineering, which are required in evaluating responses to shaking of geotechnical sites and structures. A DS survey was conducted through boreholes at the center of the Dammam metropolitan city, Saudi Arabia. A sledgehammer horizontally striking a wooden plate generated shear (S) waves polarized in the crossline and inline directions, whereas a vertical hammer hitting a metal plate generated the P wave. Data were obtained using Freedom Data PC, a downhole tool with a triaxle geophone package, and a seismograph. In the downhole technique, the geophones were equestrian on an internal rotating block, and a built-in fluxgate compass as well as servo motor system maintained the orientation of the geophones inside the borehole. The instrumentation and processes complied with the standard test methods for downhole seismic testing (Standard and D7400-08, 2008). This represents, a versatile platform for evaluating structures/infrastructures and geophysical seismic engineering surveys. The estimated seismic velocities were used in estimating the various elastic moduli and density variations within the mapped boreholes. The integrated approach of proper geotechnical characterization and 1D velocity profile proved to be a helpful tool for assessment of subsidence of Dammam city in the future which, in turn, will reduce the environmental threats facing the city.

A study of land subsidence problems by ALPRIFT for vulnerability indexing and risk indexing and treating subjectivity by strategy at two levels

Abstract Land subsidence in response to declining water table at plains under sparse data is investigated using ALPRIFT, introduced recently by the authors at the stage of its proof-of-concept. ALPRIFT is a framework, which pools consensually together seven general-purpose data layers with a scoring system of prescribed rates accounting for local variations and prescribed weights accounting for their relative importance. It is a subsidence vulnerability indexing (SVI) approach, which estimates relative values and is subject to inherent subjectivities. The paper treats the transformation of SVI into a risk indexing (RI) capability through a scheme, in which ALPRIFT breaks down into ALRIF, characterising passive local effects and into water-driven PT, characterising active system-wide effects. The addition of passive and active processes renders total vulnerability but their products render a measure of risk index. A modelling strategy is formulated for SVI and RI at two levels to treat inherent subjectivities and involves data fusion by using catastrophe theory. The strategy is applied to an aquifer subject to decline in water table at the coast of Lake Urmia, with sparse data. The results provide evidence for the proof-of-concept on SVI and RI using ROC/AUC performance metrics.