Problem Gambling Severity Index Research Articles

“I Don’t Have Any Limits”: A Qualitative Analysis of Individual Gambling Self-Control Strategies

Despite existing knowledge on self-control strategies in the context of problem gambling, further insight is needed to understand a broader spectrum of self-control strategies among individuals who span the continuum of problem gambling. This qualitative study drew on the experiences and perceptions of individuals engaging in recreational gambling as well as those at the at-risk and problem gambling levels to explore various self-control strategies and their nuances. Thirty semi-structured interviews, guided by open-ended questions exploring how gamblers define and practice responsible gambling and their understanding of responsible gambling interventions, were conducted in Quebec, Canada. Thematic analysis identified three main themes: setting limits on frequency, time, and spending, playing smart (i.e., mindful gambling), and recognizing strategy limitations. Despite employing various strategies, participants struggled to maintain self-control. Maintaining self-control was particularly difficult for those with higher Problem Gambling Severity Index scores. These findings underscore the complexities of managing gambling behavior and, more specifically, these findings contribute to understanding the role of self-control in mitigating gambling problems. This study highlights the need to focus on developing comprehensive support systems and harm minimization measures within gambling environments to better support individuals across the gambling spectrum.

The active foundations of the illusion of control: an experimental test of the Henslin effect

The mistaken belief that personal control can affect the outcomes of random events is seen as a core part of disordered gamblers’ irrational beliefs via the ‘illusion of control’. The present study tests the extent of action-based manifestation of the illusion of control in a dice-rolling game, which provides a novel controlled test of a claim first made by Henslin that craps gamblers tend to shake their dice harder when aiming for higher numbers. We also tested participants’ recent involvement in gambling games and rates of disordered gambling symptomology as two theoretically-informed potential moderators of any effect. An incentivized dice-rolling experiment was programmed for participants’ mobile devices, where device accelerometer data was used to animate the effects of their shaking and to record the dependent variable of shaking strength. 1,692 US-Based participants (Mean age 37.1; 60.7% male) completed 24 trials each, across which the target number that they would win a $1 bonus if rolled was varied from one to six. Participants rolled the dice 4.1% harder for the highest- (six) compared to lowest-number (one). However, the effect did not vary based on participants’ recent engagement with various gambling games, and also did not correlate with gamblers’ Problem Gambling Severity Index scores. These results uniquely demonstrate a small Henslin effect, but also challenge theoretical accounts that illusion of control effects should be higher in people with greater familiarity with a given situation (i.e. relevant gambling games), or who have higher levels of disordered gambling symptomatology.

Associations between loot box purchasing and gambling behaviours, financial problems, and low mental wellbeing in a household sample from a British island, a cross-sectional study

Abstract Aim This study estimated the prevalence of loot box purchasing and associated sociodemographic factors in a general population of a British island, and explored relationships between loot box purchasing and gambling behaviours, financial problems, and mental wellbeing. Subject and methods A cross-sectional survey was undertaken using representative household and supplementary convenience samples with (n = 1,234) residents of a British island aged 16 + years. The Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) was used to assess gambling harm. Financial problems in the past year were defined as having been behind with payments for expenses. The Short Warwick Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale was used to measure mental wellbeing. Purchasing loot boxes in the past year was measured via self-report as: ‘In the last 12 months, have you purchased in-game loot boxes (e.g. weapons, armour, players for a virtual sports team)?’. Analyses were performed using χ2 and binary logistic regressions. Results 5.9% of participants purchased loot boxes in the past year. There was no significant association between purchasing loot boxes and PGSI score. After controlling for sociodemographics and PGSI score, those who purchased loot boxes in the past year were 3.39 (1.42–8.11; p < 0.01) times more likely to experience financial problems, and 2.99 times (1.46–6.13; p < 0.01) more likely to have low mental wellbeing, compared to those who didn’t purchase loot boxes. Conclusion Findings in the current study suggest that purchasing loot boxes is associated with increased odds of experiencing financial problems and low mental wellbeing, independently of gambling behaviours.

What are escapists made of, and what does it have to do with excessive gambling and gaming?

AbstractResearch shows that escapism and frustration of basic psychological needs are linked with gambling and gaming problems, but an effect of escapism combined with restricted autonomy, competence, and relatedness on excessive gambling and gaming remains unclear. The purpose of this study is to identify shared characteristics of people who engage in escapist behavior and analyze to what extent the interaction of escapism and basic psychological need frustration predicts excessive gambling and gaming. We conducted a five-wave longitudinal survey with Finnish residents aged 18–75 years (n = 1530, 50.33% male) from April 2021 (T1) to April–May 2023 (T5). Measures included the Problem Gambling Severity Index, the ten-item Internet Gaming Disorder Test, and three escapism-specific questions. We analyzed the Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale, sociodemographic controls, and personality traits using multilevel regression models. We found that escapism was related to autonomy frustration, competence frustration, male gender, impulsivity, openness, and having a significant other who has experienced gambling problems. Escapism predicted excessive gambling, and competence frustration moderated this association. Escapism also predicted excessive gaming, and autonomy frustration and competence frustration moderated this association. Research on and treatment of excessive gambling and gaming should consider these underlying factors driving escapism.

Gender and trait rumination moderates the link between trait impulsivity and gambling problems severity in young adults

AimsTrait impulsivity and trait rumination appear to uniquely contribute to problem gambling. However, only a limited number of studies have investigated their relationship with each other, and no study has tested whether their interplay could explain problem gambling. In this study, we aimed to examine these associations, especially focusing on the putative moderator role of gender. MethodsThe present study utilized data from the first wave of the Budapest Longitudinal Study, representatively surveying young adults. The final, weighted sample consisted of N = 1202 (649 men; mean age = 28.04 years; SD = 4.31) participants who reported gambling in the past year. Gambling severity was assessed by the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI), trait impulsivity was measured by Barratt Impulsiveness Scale short form (BIS-R-10), while rumination was assessed by the short version of Ruminative Response Scale (RRS). ResultsMultiple linear regression analysis showed significant positive association between impulsivity and problematic gambling, and we found that both trait rumination and gender moderated this association, even after controlling for depressed mood, age, level of education, and subjective relative wealth. For men, when the level of trait rumination was high, higher levels of trait impulsivity were associated with an increase in gambling problems. However, these associations were not found among women. ConclusionsOur results suggested that the interplay of trait rumination and trait impulsivity might contribute to problem gambling, potentially by the impulsive desire to alleviate negative mood states. Our results also revealed that these associations could be stronger among men than in women.

A moderated mediation analysis of the quality of life, gambling craving, escape expectancies and problem gambling relationships

The easy access to Internet through increased availability and ownership of Internet-enabled facilities such as smart/android phones and communication data by adolescents have increased their vulnerability to problem gambling (PG). There is therefore need to understand the relationship between PG and some psychological and situational factors that have the capacity to influence its development and severity. The present study is a test of a moderated mediation model in which the effect of quality of life (QoL) on PG was mediated by escape, and this mediation effect was further moderated by gambling craving (GAC). Participants (N = 197: 83% male, Mage = 24.05 years, SD age = 7.23 years) online gamblers took part in the survey and responded to the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI), GQoL scale, Gambling Outcome Expectancies Scale-Escape (GOES-E), and the GAC scale. PROCESS macro analysis result reveals a significant moderated mediation effect of the escape-PG path by GAC. The findings provide support for escape as a potential pathway through which the QoL-PG association may thrive, and this support was further influenced by GAC. This is a significant contribution to the QoL-PG literature. However, we emphasize the need for further investigation of GAC as a criterion for PG.

A Clean Slate: Adapting the Realization Effect to Online Gambling and Its Effectiveness in People With Gambling Problems

ABSTRACTBetting more after losses (i.e., “loss‐chasing”) is a central clinical feature of disordered gambling. According to prospect theory, increasing risk‐seeking following losses could arise from a failure to “re‐reference.” By contrast, successful re‐referencing between successive decisions closes the mental account, and any losses are regarded as final or realized; gamblers should not chase realized losses. The present study sought to test this “realization effect” among gamblers using an ecologically valid online gambling task. We were further interested in whether the effectiveness of the loss realization varied as a function of problem gambling severity. Using online recruitment of past‐year gamblers stratified on the Problem Gambling Severity Index, we tested a group without gambling problems (n = 227), a group with at‐risk gambling (n = 239), and a group with gambling problems (n = 223). Over a sequence of nine bets, after the sixth bet, half of the participants underwent a simulated realization procedure that entailed cashing out from the gambling website and redepositing their remaining funds on another website. The feedback comparison group were shown their account balance after the sixth bet but did not withdraw or transfer their funds. In line with the realization effect, the group with non‐problem gambling significantly reduced their bet after cashing out. The realization procedure did not significantly ameliorate loss‐chasing in the groups with at‐risk gambling or gambling problems. We conclude that the realization effect can be elicited in an online gambling context but that stronger interventions for realizing losses may be required for people experiencing gambling problems.

Internet and Gambling: Insights from Australia's NBN Rollout.

Gambling is a well-known leisure activity that leads to significant consequences when consumed excessively. We provide an analysis of the impact of access to faster and more reliable internet connection on gambling. We rely on variations in the rollout of Australia's largest infrastructure project, National Broadband Network (NBN) installation, to measure internet speed at the postcode level. Using gambling data from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) survey, we find that access to high-speed internet is associated with a decline in gambling proxied by the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI). However, a closer look at the various forms of gambling show that internet speed is associated with an increase in online-based gambling activities, which constitute a relatively small proportion of gambling activities that Australians participate in. In contrast, internet speed is associated with a decline in venue-based gambling activities, which constitute a large proportion of gambling activities that occur in Australia, and therefore explains the overall negative effect on gambling. We find that social capital and cognitive functioning are channels through which internet speed influences gambling.

Betting high, feeling low: a cross-sectional examination of gambling severity and psychological distress among Ghanaian youth

BackgroundLittle is known about the nexus between online gambling and psychological distress among youth, especially in Ghana. This study aimed to investigate the effects of online sports betting on psychological distress, focusing on depression, anxiety, and stress among young individuals in the Volta region of Ghana.MethodsA cross-sectional study was carried out at various betting centers in the Volta region of Ghana. Four hundred and three (403) participants were selected using a multi-stage sampling method. The study used a standardized questionnaire to assess psychological distress with the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS 21) and problematic gambling with the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI). The analysis included both descriptive and inferential methods. These include the implementation of the bootstrap technique within multiple regression models using the current versions of Jeffreys’s Amazing Statistics Program (JASP) [0.18.2], Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) [29.0.2], and Microsoft Excel (2019).ResultsThe study found a prevalence of 40% for problematic gambling and 44% for moderate gambling problems among participants, resulting in an overall gambling prevalence of 84%. Regarding psychological distress, the estimated prevalence of depression among participants was 43.6%, with stress reported at 31.1% and anxiety at 68.8%. The overall prevalence of psychological distress was 48%. When analyzing the link between gambling and psychological distress, the study noted that males were more prone to gambling-related psychological distress than females (β = 2.036, p = 0.025). Furthermore, individuals with problem gambling showed the highest probability of experiencing more significant psychological distress compared to other groups (β = 9.228, p = 0.002), followed by those with moderate gambling levels (β = 3.283, p = 0.002).ConclusionWe recommend that the mental health unit of the Ghana Health Service, in collaboration with the Gaming Commission of Ghana, should develop youth-friendly interventions to address the prevalence and onset of problematic gambling among the youth, especially males. This could, in turn, reduce the prevalence of psychological distress among youth engaged in online gambling in Ghana.

The impacts of stress and loneliness on gambling and gaming problems: A nationwide longitudinal study.

Problems related to gambling and digital gaming have been a topic of concern for years. Less attention has been paid to the probable psychosocial factors behind these problems. While previous studies have established links between stress, loneliness, and addiction, there is a lack of longitudinal research investigating how stress and loneliness affect addictive behaviors, including problem gambling and gaming. This study uses multilevel mixed-effects generalized linear models to analyze the between- and within-person effects of stress and loneliness on gambling and gaming problems. The interaction between stress and loneliness was also investigated. A representative sample of Finns (N = 1,530) answered a survey in 6-month intervals between spring 2021 and autumn 2023; 49.22% of the sample took part at all six time points. The Problem Gambling Severity Index and the Internet Gaming Disorder Test were used to measure gambling and gaming problems. The three-item UCLA Loneliness Scale was used to assess loneliness, and the Perceived Stress Scale was used to evaluate stress. After controlling for gender and age, loneliness was found to increase only gaming problems at both the between- and within-person levels, but not gambling. In contrast, stress enhanced both gambling and gaming problems at the between- and within-person levels. Additionally, loneliness and stress were found to have negative interaction suggesting that their combined effect was lower than their separate effects. The findings provide longitudinal insight into the psychosocial vulnerabilities behind problem gambling and gaming, which can be helpful in designing targeted interventions.

National burden of gambling in Japan: an estimation from an online-based cross-sectional investigation and national epidemiological survey

BackgroundGambling is a popular leisure activity in many countries, often expected to boost regional economies. Nevertheless, its negative impacts remain a significant concern. Gambling disorder is recognized as the most severe consequence; however, even non- or low-risk gamblers may also face negative impacts. This study aimed to estimate the number of Japanese gamblers experiencing gambling-related harm (GRH) and its distribution across six life domains, financial, relational, emotional, health, social and other aspects, based on the severity of their problem gambling risk.MethodsThis cross-sectional study relied on an online survey conducted between August 5 and 11, 2020. Participants aged 20 years and above, who engaged in gambling during 2019 were recruited via a market research company. The survey assessed the prevalence of GRH 72 items among four gambler risk groups (non-problem, low-, moderate-, and high-risk), as categorized by the Problem Gambling Severity Index. The data was adjusted for population weighting using representative national survey data: the 2017 Comprehensive Survey of Living Conditions and the 2017 Epidemiological Survey on Gambling Addictions.ResultsOut of the 28,016 individuals invited to the survey, 6,124 participated in the screening, 3,113 in the main survey, and 3,063 provided valid responses. After adjusting the survey data, it was estimated that 39.0 million (30.8%) of Japan’s 126.8 million citizens gambled in 2019. Among them, 4.44 million (11.4%) experienced financial harm, 2.70 million (6.9%) health harm, 2.54 million (6.5%) emotional harm, 1.31 million (3.4%) work/study harm, 1.28 million (3.3%) relationship harm, and 0.46 million (1.2%) other harm. Although high-risk gamblers experienced severe harm at the individual level, over 60% of gamblers who experienced GRHs were non- and low-risk gamblers, with the exception of other harm, at the population level.ConclusionsThe study highlighted the prevention paradox of gambling in Japan. While national gambling policies primarily focus on the prevention and intervention for high-risk gamblers, a more effective approach would involve minimizing GRH across the entire population.

The Dual Burden of Emerging Adulthood: Assessing Gambling Severity, Gambling-Related Harm, and Mental Health Challenges.

Growing concerns over gambling problems across age groups have sparked research in public health and psychology. During emerging adulthood, individuals are more susceptible to mental health problems and more likely to develop gambling problems than in other age groups. This study explored the potential differences between emerging adults and adults aged 30+ in terms of problem gambling severity (PGS), gambling-related harm (GRH), depression and anxiety, and the mediating role of depression and anxiety in the association between age, PGS, and GRH. A representative online sample of 3244 Israelis aged 18 and over was divided into two groups: 740 emerging adults aged 18-29 and 2504 adults aged 30+. Gambling behaviors, the Problem Gambling Severity Index, the Short Gambling Harm Screen, and the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 assessing depression and anxiety were administered. Emerging adults had significantly higher levels of GRH, PGS, and depression-anxiety than their older counterparts, above and beyond gender and education. Depression-anxiety fully mediated the associations between age and gambling-related outcomes. These findings underscore the importance of considering psychological well-being in efforts to address problem gambling and gambling-related harms, especially in emerging adults.

Colliding harms of gambling and gaming: A four-wave longitudinal population study of at-risk gambling and gaming in Finland.

Aims: Both gambling and digital gaming are growing in popularity and there is ongoing discussion about their convergence. This population-based longitudinal survey study investigated how gambling and digital gaming types contribute to at-risk gambling and gaming. Methods: The study was based on a representative sample of 18-75-year-olds from mainland Finland. Survey data were collected at 6-month intervals in 2021-2022, starting in April 2021. Of original T1 respondents, 58.95% took part in all four time points. In total, 3,608 observations from 902 individuals were analysed. Outcome measures were at-risk gambling and gaming based on the Problem Gambling Severity Index and the Internet Gaming Disorder Test. Various types of gambling and gaming were investigated. Results: Population-averaged models showed that different forms of gambling were associated with a higher risk of at-risk gaming. Online casino games were associated with the highest likelihood of at-risk gambling and gaming. Prevalence of digital gaming problems was low. Hybrid models were used to investigate the longitudinal within-person and between-person effects of gambling and gaming activities. Online casino games and offline slot machines increased at-risk gambling. Microtransactions within digital games increased at-risk gambling and gaming over time, but the amount of money spent on digital gaming was small compared to gambling. Conclusions: Our results underline the risks of EGMs and online gambling for the participants. Although gambling and gaming are converging, harm is mostly based on gambling.

The relationship between gambling behaviour and gambling-related harm: A data fusion approach using open banking data.

UK-based gambling policymakers have proposed affordability checks starting at monthly losses of £125. The present study combines open banking data with self-reports of the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) and other relevant information to explore the harm profiles of people who gamble at different levels of electronic gambling behaviour. This was a data fusion study in which participants consented to share their bank data via an open banking application programming interface (API) and who also completed relevant self-report items. Hierarchical hurdle models were used to predict being an at-risk gambler (PGSI > 0) and being a 'higher-risk' gambler (higher PGSI scores among those with non-zero scores) using four specifications of electronic gambling behaviour (net-spend, outgoing expenditure, incoming withdrawals, interaction model combining expenditure and withdrawals), and by adding self-reported data across two additional steps. The study took place in the United Kingdom. Participants were past-year people who gamble (n = 424), recruited via Prolific. Self-report measures were used of gambling-related harm (PGSI), depression [Patient Health Questionnaire 9 (PHQ-9)], age and gender; bank-recorded measures of income and electronic gambling behaviour. Unharmed gamblers had an average monthly gambling net-spend of £16.41, compared with £208.91 among highest-risk gamblers (PGSI ≥ 5). Being an at-risk gambler (PGSI > 0) was predicted significantly by all four types of gambling behaviour throughout all three steps [1.08 ≤ odds ratios (ORs) ≤ 2.92; Ps < 0.001), with only outgoing expenditure being significant in the interaction model (2.26 ≤ ORs ≤ 2.81; Ps < 0.001). Higher PHQ-9 scores also predicted at-risk gambling in steps 2-3 (1.09 ≤ ORs ≤ 1.10; Ps < 0.001), as did lower age (0.95 ≤ ORs ≤ 0.96; Ps < 0.001) and male gender identity in step 3 (2.51 ≤ ORs ≤ 2.95; Ps < 0.001). Being a higher-risk gambler was predicted significantly by gambling behaviour only in the expenditure-only (1.16 ≤ ORs ≤ 1.17; Ps ≤ 0.048) and withdrawal-only (1.08 ≤ ORs ≤ 1.09; Ps ≤ 0.004) models, and was not predicted by income (0.98 ≤ ORs ≤ 1.14; Ps ≥ 0.601), age (0.98 ≤ ORs ≤ 0.99; Ps ≥ 0.143) or male gender identity (1.07 ≤ ORs ≤ 1.15; Ps ≥ 0.472). The UK government's proposed affordability checks for gamblers should rarely affect people who are not experiencing gambling-related harm. At-risk gambling is predicted well by different types of gambling behaviour. Novel insights about gambling can be generated by fusing self-reported and objective data.

Disordered gambling, or dependence and consequences: a bifactor exploratory structural equation model analysis of the problem gambling severity index

Background The Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) is a widely used assessment of disordered gambling. However, it has been claimed that instead of measuring a single factor of problem gambling severity, the PGSI measures two correlated factors of behavioral dependence and harms/consequences. The existing literature using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis has notable limitations that mean these accounts cannot be discriminated. Method Secondary data from 13 nationally representative surveys of gamblers in the UK (n = 42,422) between 2007 and 2023 were used to examine five different approaches to specifying one- and two-factor models of the PGSI. Results Overall, the findings supported a single construct account. Fit indices provided slight support for a two-factor model. However, the composition and loadings of these factors did not replicate in the disaggregated datasets and demonstrated poor model-based reliability. The best-fitting model was a bifactor ESEM model with a general gambling severity factor and a group-specific factor subsuming additional covariance between the first three or four items. Conclusions This study provides support for a unitary gambling severity construct and the use of total PGSI scores. The second factor observed elsewhere appears to consist of residual covariances between the first 3-4 PGSI items or a methods factor that can be explained by item framing (e.g. items that ask about gambling behavior).

Perceptions of gambling marketing among young adults who gamble in Ireland

ABSTRACT Gambling marketing, which has been reported to influence consumer perceptions and behavior, has attracted growing academic, public and policy interest. There are fewer qualitative studies with young adults however and no research has explored how gambling marketing is viewed by people in Ireland who gamble. One-to-one interviews were conducted with 18–34 year-olds in Ireland, with 8 considered low-risk (those scoring fewer than 3 on the Problem Gambling Severity Index [PGSI]) and 8 high-risk (those scoring 8 or more on the PGSI). Discussions were thematically analyzed. Participants reported high exposure to gambling marketing, most commonly on television and online. They were familiar with myriad gambling-related promotions, including new customer/sign-up offers, free or matched bets/spins, price offers and bonuses, time-limited bets and offers, risk-minimizing offers, jackpots, prizes, and loyalty/rewards schemes. Gambling marketing was thought to influence behavior by prompting participants to place a bet or take advantage of offers and promotions, with participants indicating they had or would bet or deposit more than intended to benefit from an offer or promotion. The findings provide insight into how young adults in Ireland perceive and respond to gambling industry marketing.

Gambling participation and risk after COVID-19: Analysis of a population representative longitudinal panel of Australians.

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on gambling participation and levels of gambling harm across populations during the pandemic is now addressed in a well-established body of empirical literature. This study aimed to measure the longer-term implications of COVID-19 on gambling participation and levels of gambling harm. Population-based cohort study using group-based trajectory modelling. Australia, using gambling participation, problem gambling risk, sociodemographic and psychosocial data from 2019 (pre COVID-19), 2020, 2021 (during COVID-19) and 2023 (post COVID-19). A population representative survey of Australian adults, including four waves collected in April 2019 (n = 2054), November 2020 (n = 3029), October 2021 (n = 3474) and January 2023 (n = 3370), with a subset (n = 3160) of the sample having longitudinal data available. Participants were asked which gambling activities they participated in over the past 12 months for money. Problem gambling risk was measured by the nine-item Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI). There was an overall reduction in gambling participation during COVID-19 and return to pre-pandemic levels for most gambling activities by 2023. The longitudinal analysis yielded four trajectories of gambling participation from 2019 to 2023, including individuals who (1) never gambled (25.0% of the longitudinal sample; n= 789); (2) engaged in non-problematic gambling (59.8%; n= 1888); (3) ceased gambling during COVID-19 and started again post pandemic (10.7%; n= 337); and (4) engaged in high risk gambling (4.6%; n= 146), with particular demographic and psychosocial profiles and patterns of participation in specific gambling activities related to these trajectories. Although overall gambling participation rates decreased at the population level in Australia during COVID-19, by 2023 participation in gambling appeared to have nearly returned to pre-pandemic levels. Patterns of gambling behavior before, during and after the pandemic appear to be heterogeneous.

Cue-Reactive Phenomenology Mediates the Relationship Between Positive Schizotypy and Cue-Reactive Urge to Gamble in Poker-Machine Gamblers

Although ubiquitous in numerous nightlife cultures, poker-machines present a high risk for problematic use and addiction. Previous research has demonstrated that gambling cues (e.g., flashing lights) can activate gambling urges in poker-machine gamblers. However, the processes that contribute to the maintenance of cue-reactive urges to gamble remain unclear. Consequently, the present study explored whether positive schizotypy predicted gambling urge, and whether cue-reactive altered state of awareness, cue-reactive altered time sense, and cue-reactive absorption mediated this relationship. Seventy adults aged between 19 and 68 (M = 48.86, SD = 12.82) participated in an online cue-reactivity experiment. Participants first completed the Problem Gambling Severity Index and the Unusual Experiences subscale of the Short Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences. Subsequently, at three time points (i.e., baseline, directly after a neutral cue, and directly after a gambling cue) participants completed the Altered State of Awareness, Altered Time Sense, and Absorption subscales of the Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory and a visual analogue scale measuring cue-reactive urge to gamble. It was found that positive schizotypy was significantly positively correlated with cue-reactive urge to gamble. Additionally, cue-reactive altered state of awareness, cue-reactive altered time sense, and cue-reactive absorption mediated this relationship. The theoretical, clinical and practical implications are discussed.

Using Artificial Intelligence Algorithms to Predict Self-Reported Problem Gambling Among Online Casino Gamblers from Different Countries Using Account-Based Player Data

AbstractThe prevalence of online gambling and the potential for related harm necessitate predictive models for early detection of problem gambling. The present study expands upon prior research by incorporating a cross-country approach to predict self-reported problem gambling using player-tracking data in an online casino setting. Utilizing a secondary dataset comprising 1743 British, Canadian, and Spanish online casino gamblers (39% female; mean age = 42.4 years; 27.4% scoring 8 + on the Problem Gambling Severity Index), the present study examined the association between demographic, behavioral, and monetary intensity variables with self-reported problem gambling, employing a hierarchical logistic regression model. The study also tested the efficacy of five different machine learning models to predict self-reported problem gambling among online casino gamblers from different countries. The findings indicated that behavioral variables, such as taking self-exclusions, frequent in-session monetary depositing, and account depletion, were paramount in predicting self-reported problem gambling over monetary intensity variables. The study also demonstrated that while machine learning models can effectively predict problem gambling across different countries without country-specific training data, incorporating such data improved the overall model performance. This suggests that specific behavioral patterns are universal, yet nuanced differences across countries exist that can improve prediction models.

Establishing the temporal stability of machine learning models that detect online gambling-related harms

Artificial Intelligence (AI) models can detect at-risk online gamblers by analyzing patterns in their betting behaviour, but their performance over time has not been assessed. Linking online gamblers’ self-reported gambling problems to their transactional gambling data, we investigated the temporal stability of online gambling behaviours at two timepoints (2019–2022). We then assessed the impacts of shifting gambling behaviours on the performance of two previously-validated AI harm detection models.Adult users of a Canadian online gambling website (n2019 = 9,145, n2022 = 11,258) completed the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI), a validated questionnaire examining past-year gambling problems. Population Stability Index assessed the temporal stability of 10 previously-validated indicators of problematic online gambling. Two AI models were then revalidated using overall and threshold-dependent performance metrics.All measured indicators of problematic online gambling behaviour shifted significantly from 2019 to 2022 (all p < 0.001). Existing AI models showed significant changes in Area Under the Precision-Recall Curve (PGSI 5+ ΔAUPRC = +2.87%; t(20401) = 2.83, p = 0.004; PGSI 8+ ΔAUPRC = +7.06%; t(20401) = 7.21, p < 0.001). Adjusting these models’ decision thresholds realigned their classification performance with originally-validated levels. These results support the use of AI for online gambling harm detection.