Problem Animal Control Research Articles

A global survey of the societal benefits of trophy hunting in Africa

African trophy hunting is controversial. Central to the debate on this practice is whether it may be justified by any broader provisions to African society. These typically include meat supply to poor communities, problem animal control, and the funding of conservation and community development. The societal role of African hunting is as contested as the practice itself, with proponents advocating for the benefits of hunting, while critics point to these being inadequate. Little is known about the role of location and demography in the debate on hunting benefits. Here we circulated an anonymous online survey through our international networks. We asked respondents to indicate which (if any) benefits they thought may justify the practice and whether they supported African trophy hunting, or not. We also collected data on respondent geographic location, age, gender, and employment within conservation. The 5755 responses were analysed using multiple correspondence analysis and provided strong evidence for an association between the level of support/rejection of trophy hunting and potential benefits that were perceived to justify the practice. Funding of wildlife conservation through hunting was the most frequently selected benefit, even among many respondents with a neutral or slightly negative view toward trophy hunting as a practice. Respondents strongly opposed to trophy hunting were more likely to reject all societal benefits of hunting. There was some divergence in views between Africa-based respondents, and those outside of Africa. We suggest that any policy development on African trophy hunting be required to incorporate the views of all African stakeholders.

Anthropogenic edge effects and aging errors by hunters can affect the sustainability of lion trophy hunting

Many large predator populations are in decline globally with significant implications for ecosystem integrity and function. Understanding the drivers of their decline is required to adequately mitigate threats. Trophy hunting is often cited as a tool to conserve large mammal populations but may also have negative impacts if not well managed. Here we use a spatially implicit, individual based model to investigate the threats posed to African lion populations by poorly managed trophy hunting and additive anthropogenic mortality such as poaching and retaliatory killing. We confirm the results of previous studies that show that lion trophy hunting can be sustainable if only older male lions are hunted, but demonstrate that hunting becomes unsustainable when populations are exposed to additional anthropogenic mortality, as is the case for most free ranging populations. We show that edge effects can be a critical determinant of population viability and populations that encompass well protected source areas are more robust than those without. Finally, errors in aging of hunted lions by professional trophy hunters may undermine the sustainability of the age-based quota setting strategies that are now widely used to manage lion trophy hunting. The effect of aging errors was most detrimental to population persistence in the ≥ 6 and ≥ 7 year-old age thresholds that are frequently used to define suitably aged lions for hunting. Resource managers should limit offtakes to older demographics and additionally take a precautionary approach when setting hunting quotas for large carnivore populations that are affected by other sources of anthropogenic mortality, such as bush-meat poaching, retaliatory killing and problem animal control.

Count me in: Leopard population density in an area of mixed land‐use, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Count me in: Leopard population density in an area of mixed land‐use, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Opportunities and challenges of human–python conflict intervention in local communities adjacent to Nyanga National Park, Zimbabwe

AbstractConservation of wildlife often results in the protection of endangered species, like the Southern African python (Python natalensis). However, wildlife tends to occur both in protected areas and human settlements and the latter results in human–wildlife conflict (HWC). Often when the species involved threaten human life and/or livestock, wildlife authorities react through Problem Animal Control (PAC). The successes and challenges of this practice often vary. We present opportunities and challenges in the practical interventions to minimize human–python conflict by the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (ZPWMA) in communities adjacent to Nyanga National Park (NNP). We draw on station reports and reactions of human–python conflicts (2013–2020), our involvement with communities when human–python interactions occur, and discussions with stakeholders, extension officers, and wildlife rangers and managers responsible for coordinating PAC programs. We observed that the number of human–python conflict reports have decreased in the past 5 years. Furthermore, ZPWMA's efforts to resolve HWC through PAC reactions in concert with education and awareness, as well as collaborating with stakeholders, contributed to addressing the conflict. We propose four key action areas to strengthen intervention plans and procedures. The action areas involve (i) establishing the population and distribution structure of P. natalensis, (ii) evaluation of successes of capture and release, (iii) establishing the link between python age and involvement in human–python conflicts, and (iv) assessing community perceptions towards human–python conflict reports and interventions by the ZPWMA.

Livestock depredation by large carnivores in northern Botswana

Human-carnivore conflict is a leading cause of large carnivore declines and minimizing these conflicts is vital to maintaining viable carnivore populations. Often, however, conservation agencies and governments do not have a proper understanding of conflicts prior to establishing mitigation programs or are unable to collect the appropriate data to verify claims of livestock loss. We investigated livestock depredation events in the Eastern Panhandle of the Okavango Delta, Botswana between October 2014 and December 2016 and compared these investigations with concurrent Problem Animal Control (PAC) information from the Botswana Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) compensation program. Only animals killed in livestock enclosures or while being herded qualify for reimbursement through the compensation program, but DWNP is typically unable to verify claims. We identified wildlife sign at the depredation event location and collected information from the livestock owner to determine the species responsible for the attack, time of the attack, the livestock lost, and the husbandry methods employed. In total, 116 livestock were killed and 13 more injured in 102 confirmed wild carnivore attacks. Most (90%) attacks occurred while livestock were unattended and freely grazing in multi-use, communal areas. Cows, oxen (castrated male cows) and calves (Bos taurus and B. t. indicus) were killed most often and African lions (Panthera leo) were responsible for 74% of investigated attacks, while African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) accounted for 13%, leopard (Panthera pardus) 8%, and spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) 5%. Valuation of verified losses totaled ∼$30,000 over the study period. There were 50% more events reported to DWNP for compensation than we confirmed through independent investigations. In its current form, the compensation program does not seem sustainable, nor does it enable the verification of claims. While compensation programs should not be abandoned, programs designed to provide monetary reimbursement for losses caused by predators should require timely reporting and in-depth investigation of depredation events. Additional conflict mitigation strategies should target increasing livestock husbandry methods in the area, with a specific focus on herding.

Income and Conservation Dynamics of the Biological Bee-Fence: A bio-Economic Simulation

Human-elephant conflicts in most African countries coincide in areas where poverty and natural resources are most profound. Although popularly believed to be an asset capable of generating consumptive and non-consumptive ecotourism revenue, African elephants are in some parts of Africa viewed as pests and predators worth eradicating as a result of high human-elephant conflicts (crop raiding, property damage, human and livestock predation). This has shifted the conservation debate to issues of how much biodiversity (elephants) can be saved in the face of suffering local communities. With that background, we tested the income and conservation premise of the biological bee-fence concept as a complementary problem animal control (PAC) measure from a rural setting where elephants interact with local poor communities using bio-economic simulations. We conclude that the biological bee-fence concept has a significant potential to deter elephants from invading surrounding communities’ fields as well as generating the much needed household income. These findings reinforce the conservation and income premise of the biological bee-fence under a typical African rural setting worth up-scaling.

‘Wildlife officials only care about animals’: Farmers' perceptions of a Ministry-based extension delivery system in mitigating human-wildlife conflicts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana

It is widely recognised that government intervention in development issues can shape people's perceptions and experiences. This study examined the influence of a Ministry-based extension system on community-based, problem animal control and perceptions among local arable farmers at the eastern Okavango Panhandle in northern Botswana. Using a survey of 388 arable farmers and key informant interviews, our results showed that participation of local people in the implementation of the participatory project was vital for improving people's perceptions and gaining adoption of the innovations, and significantly contributing to project outcomes. Lack of people participation in decision making, the extent to which farmers perceived extension agents as trustworthy, the number of extension agents and extension delivery methods were found to be important factors explaining farmers' perceptions and adoption decisions. Analyses also indicated that knowledge development alone (which is a form of community empowerment) was not enough to encourage participation and innovation adoption. Village project committee (VPC) members' and farmers' remarks about their socioeconomic hardships suggested that they preferred economic incentives over any other incentives. This suggests that community's immediate needs for livelihood and food security are among the locally pressing needs that should be addressed to drive people's commitment to the project. From a policy perspective, our results underscore the need to implement comprehensive interventions that address wildlife management and community development, and actively involve local people in management and decision making to achieve sustainability in human elephant conflict management. There is need, therefore, for government (particularly the wildlife departments) to provide an institutional structure for supporting community-based governance for the purpose of ensuring effective and sustainable wildlife management and conservation.

Electrifying the fence or living with consequences? Problem animal control threatens the long‐term viability of a free‐ranging lion population

AbstractA fundamental problem in conserving large carnivores is habitat destruction, which results in patchy, isolated protected areas. In addition, human–wildlife conflict along reserve borders negatively affects carnivore populations throughout protected reserves. We present pride composition of nine lion prides and lion mortalities on bordering farmland over a 17‐year study in Etosha National Park, Namibia. Although Etosha National Park is fully fenced, lions can – due to poor maintenance of the fence – move freely onto bordering farmland. Conflict with humans caused 48% of mortalities among subadult and adult lions. Most animals killed by humans consisted of subadult males and adult females: 59% of subadult males and 27% of adult females were shot or poisoned along the border of Etosha National Park. The disproportional high killing of subadult males on farmland affected the tenure periods of resident male coalitions. Probably due to a lack of competition from maturing subadult males, adult males held tenure over prides for nearly 7 years, about three times longer compared to other ecosystems, which increases the risk of inbreeding in this population. Such unregulated and unplanned selective mortality may be more widespread, and managers should monitor for negative effects, especially in socially complex species.

Could a Legal Ivory Trade Reverse Present Declines in Elephant Populations in Africa? Predictions from an Engineer's Population Simulation Model

As the Seventeenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES draws closer, there has been a spate of papers from economists and modellers purporting to show that any attempts at resuscitating a legal trade in ivory are too risky to attempt.This paper uses a hybrid model grounded in the biological characteristics and population dynamics of elephants. It begins with an examination of the funding needed to protect elephants. This funding requirement applies as much to a State attempting to protect elephants in a national park as it does to a local community trying to protected elephants in a communal land. It explores the extent to which elephant populations can sustain illegal hunting in the absence of funding and then tests the effects of feeding back a proportion of the return from legal trade in ivory to mitigate the degree of illegal hunting. This legal trade is derived entirely from natural mortality ivory and a low level of problem animal control ivory. It does not include any harvesting of the sort naively put forward by Lusseau & Lee (2016).The results indicate that population declines resulting from illegal hunting levels up to 10% of the population can easily be reversed by the feedback of a proportion of the funds available from a legal trade in ivory. The higher the proportion the shorter is the recovery period. Without this feedback an illegal hunting level of 10% of the population results in a population half-life of 13 years. The response time of an elephant population to any change in its management regime can be very long. The value in this modelling is that it shows the response times for any particular scenario.The algorithm for the feedback mechanism is empirically derived. Its performance needs to be seen as part of the hypothesis to be evaluated under an adaptive management approach. It provides the starting point for action and should be modified as and when it is seen that it does not adequately describe the process.The CITES ban on legal ivory and demand reduction programmes act against the objective of mobilising significant funds to bring about population recovery. The effect is not merely neutral – it will cause the demise of elephant populations.

VULTURES BEFORE THE CONSTITUTIONAL COURT: THE CHEQUE IS IN THE MAIL Khohliso v S [2014] ZACC 33

The legislative protection of wildlife in the Eastern Cape is not in what one would describe as a state of orderliness. Considering merely provincial or other regional legislation, one finds that there are at least three (four, if one includes the Problem Animal Control Ordinance 26 of 1957) such pieces of legislation operating simultaneously, or in parallel, depending upon where one finds oneself in the Eastern Cape, regulating the same subject matter. In the first place there is Decree 9 of 1992 which applies to what was once the independent homeland of Transkei before Transkei once again became part of the “new” South Africa, following the constitutional developments since 1993. Decree 9 was issued by presidential decree upon the recommendation of a Military Council, following a military coup which soon replaced the “democratic” government of the Transkei. Similarly there is the Nature Conservation Act 10 of 1987 (Ciskei) which applies to what was the independent homeland of Ciskei, which also became part of South Africa following the same constitutional developments since 1993. (The Ciskei too suffered a military coup soon after attaining independence.) As for the remainder of the Eastern Cape, the subject matter is regulated by the (Cape) Nature and Environmental Conservation Ordinance 19 of 1974, a creation of the Cape Provincial Council then in existence. The Provincial Councils were ultimately abolished by the Provincial Government Act 69 of 1986, and their law-making powers were transferred to the Executive.The result of this farrago of legislation is that the status of each piece is unclear. Do they constitute original legislation or delegated legislation, or did they constitute legislative acts as opposed to executive acts? As if the matter is not complicated enough, Parliament has adopted (national) legislation which overlaps with the subject matter regulated by the aforementioned provincial or regional legislation, namely the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act 10 of 2004 in terms of which the relevant Minister adopted the Threatened or Protected Species Regulations (GNR150 / GG29657 / 20070223). A new draft set of such Regulations has been published for comment (GN255 and 256 / GG38600 / 20150331).
 In 1994 the sovereignty of Parliament gave way to the rule of law and the supremacy of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (the Constitution). The validity of legislation could now be challenged before the courts on the grounds that it was in conflict with the Constitution. In this regard section 167(5) of the Constitution provides that the Constitutional Court had to confirm an order of invalidity made by a High Court in respect of an Act of Parliament, a provincial Act or conduct of the President. In terms of section 172(2)(a), the declaration of invalidity had no force unless confirmed by the Constitutional Court.On 20 February 2010 Ms Nokhanjo Khohliso (“the Appellant”) ran afoul of the Transkei Decree 9 of 1992, having had in her possession two vulture feet in contravention of the Decree. The Appellant was a traditional healer and intended to use the feet as ingredients to a remedy designed to protect her clients against theft. For her troubles, the magistrate’s court handed her a sentence of a fine of R4000.00, or twelve months imprisonment. The Appellant appealed to the Eastern Cape High Court, Mthatha, against her conviction, essentially challenging the constitutionality of the provisions of the Decree in terms whereof she was convicted. The key question that is examined in this note is whether a declaration of such unconstitutionality is subject to confirmation by the Constitutional Court in terms of section 167(5) and 172(2)(a) of the Constitution (see above). Reduced to its essence, the issue is whether legislation of the nature of Decree 9 is subject to the abovementioned two sections.

Elephant conservation and corruption beyond the ivory trade.

African elephants (Loxodonta africana) are in decline through illegal killing for ivory, with estimated reductions in approximately 75% of 306 studied populations (Wittemyer et al. 2014). The legal trade of ivory from natural mortality and problem animal control has been suggested as a way to reduce illegal killing because it can provide a direct and regular source of funding to elephant conservationists in Africa (Stiles 2004), people who currently depend on overstretched government budgets and grants from international donors to support their work. Such international trade has not taken place since 2008, but several African countries have been stockpiling their ivory in expectation of future sales, and many countries outside Africa have legal domestic markets for ivory certified as antique or coming from these legal stockpiles. Bennett (2015) argues that such trade is counterproductive and should be banned because current legal domestic markets have been subverted by corruption and are allowing the laundering of illegal ivory and because reducing this corruption to acceptable levels within the next few decades is impossible. The impact of corruption on conservation outcomes is often ignored, so we welcome Bennett’s article for highlighting the issue. However, singling out the ivory trade gives the impression that it is uniquely affected by corruption. We argue that corruption potentially undermines every aspect of elephant conservation and there is no evidence that any approach is more or less susceptible. Thus, the long-term future of elephants requires conservationists to learn lessons from other sectors to understand and tackle this problem.

Surveys of lionsPanthera leoin protected areas in Zimbabwe yield disturbing results: what is driving the population collapse?

AbstractThe African lionPanthera leois an iconic species but it has faced dramatic range reductions and possibly as few as 30,000 individuals remain in the wild. In the absence of detailed ground-based surveys, lion populations may be estimated using regression models based on prey biomass availability but these often overestimate lion densities as a result of a variety of compounding factors. Anthropogenic factors can be key drivers of lion population dynamics and in areas with high human impact lion numbers may be significantly lower than those predicted by prey biomass models. This was investigated in two protected areas in Zimbabwe, where lion population densities were found to be significantly lower than would have been predicted by prey-availability models. High hunting quotas either within or around the protected areas are the most likely cause of the low lion numbers, with quotas in some areas being as high as seven lions per 1,000 km2in some years. Other factors, including persecution, poisoning and problem animal control, as well as disease and competition with spotted hyaenasCrocuta crocuta, are also discussed.

Lion Hunting and Trophy Quality Records in Zambia for the Period 1967-2000: Will the Trends in Trophy Size Drop as Lion Population Declines?

Data on lion skull measurements taken were collected and analyzed to determine trends in trophy size as an indicator of population size, and area of origin among the concessioned hunting areas in Zambia for the period 1967-2000. A comparison of trophy quality was also made with Tanzania and Zimbabwe which were the other two key sources of lion trophies in Africa. It was assumed that a comprehensive analysis of lion trophy sizes obtained from trophy hunting would be used as an indicator of hunting pressure on lion populations in Zambia. This approach was used because trophy size is an index of abundance particularly for species such as lion which are difficult to count using conventional census methods. Record lion trophies from Safari Club International rating were also collected and assessed to compare trophy quality obtained from Zambia and those of Tanzania and Zimbabwe for the same period 1967-2000 (33 years). Results obtained suggested that Zambia’s contribution to the record trophies under Safari Club International did not decline in the intervening period 1967-2000 and could not be used as an effective indicator of lion population in Zambia. At regional level, Zambia had second highest 24%, after Tanzania 56%, while Zimbabwe was third, 20%. It was found that the size of skulls could not be used as an effective indicator of population size as the record trophies did not decline while the population was alleged to have declined on the continent. Other factors, such as genetic, low prey densities, snaring, poisoning and problem animal control needed to be investigated to determine their impact on the lion population status.

Spatial Interactions of African Elephant <i>Loxodonta africana</i> with the Resident Communities Bordering a Semi-arid National Park in Northern Kenya

Northern Kenya is endowed with rich ecosystems that support populations of African Elephant, Loxodonta africana . The changing human demographics accompanied by climate change have exacerbated the incidences of human-wildlife conflicts, especially around the protected areas – the parks and reserves. Recorded incidence of conflict between humans and elephants, in particular crop-raiding, is increasing in rural Africa, undermining efforts to conserve biological diversity. Gaining an understanding of the underlying determinants of human–elephant conflict is important for the development of appropriate management tools. We examined the causal factors of the human-elephant conflicts around Marsabit National Park, and evaluated potential mitigation strategies. Our findings showed that incidences of elephant conflicts affected both agricultural farms and livestock around the park. Seasonality (wet and dry) and distance from the park boundary also influenced the frequency of human elephant conflicts. Our findings further showed that the problem animal control unit presently organized by the wildlife management authority in Kenya – the Kenya Wildlife Service had little impacts in mitigating the existing human-elephant conflicts in the area. We discuss the implications of our findings in the contexts of land use planning and partitioning of resources around the Park, and the need for community engagement as a long-term strategy for winning support for conservation of African elephant in northern Kenya.

Impact of conservation interventions on the dynamics and persistence of a persecuted leopard ( Panthera pardus) population

There is an extraordinary assortment of technical approaches to conserving carnivore populations, but the effectiveness of conservation activities is rarely evaluated. Accordingly, we initiated a study to assess the impact of several conservation interventions on the dynamics and persistence of a leopard ( Panthera pardus) population in Phinda Private Game Reserve, South Africa. These included revisions of the statutory systems that regulate problem animal control and trophy hunting, and we instituted a program intended to reduce human–leopard conflict in the region. We compared demographic rates of radiocollared leopards from two sampling periods: a pre-treatment period prior to intervention, and a treatment period after intervention. The average annual mortality rate of the population decreased from 0.401 ± 0.070 to 0.134 ± 0.016, with fewer leopards killed by humans and in intraspecific clashes after intervention. The overall reproductive output of the population increased in the treatment period, although annual cub production was higher in the pre-treatment period. This was mainly due to larger litter sizes prior to intervention, which may have been a strategy used by female leopards to offset high levels of infanticide. Results from camera-trap surveys and a Leslie-matrix model indicated an increase in annual population growth rate ( λ) of 14–16% after the implementation of conservation measures. Our findings highlight the importance of addressing both the numerical and functional components of population dynamics when managing large carnivores exposed to hunting or persecution.

Livestock Predation—Insights From Problem Animal Control Registers in Botswana

Abstract:Problem Animal Control Registers, where farmers report livestock losses due to predators as a prerequisite for financial compensation, allow quantifying the human‐predator conflict. We analyzed such registers from the Kweneng District of Botswana to assess the impact of native predators on livestock over 3 years. Leopards (Panthera pardus), lions (Panthera leo), wild dogs (Lycaon pictus), brown hyenas (Hyaena brunnea), and cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) altogether claimed 2,272 head of livestock. During 2002, the year with the highest impact, the number of animals reported depredated (954) represented 0.34% of the livestock in the district. Leopards and lions caused 64% of the losses. Leopard livestock predation mainly affected calves and was consistent over the district and over time. In contrast, lion predation concentrated on adult cattle, was characterized by local hot spots close to reserve borders, decreased with increasing distance to a reserve, and increased during 2002, an unusually dry year. Interviews with 60 farmers and herders within 30 km of Khutse and Central Kalahari Game Reserves revealed an annual loss of 2.2% of their livestock to predators. Here, small farms (max. 100 domestic animals) suffered relatively higher losses than large, commercial farms, not only due to predation (small farms: 11.7%; large farms: 1.0%) but also from other causes (small: 12.6%; large: 2.8%), even though herders on large farms guarded 5 times more livestock per person than those on small farms. To reduce livestock predation in most of the district where lions are absent, we recommend maternity corrals for pregnant females and calves to better protect vulnerable calves during day and night. In areas close to a reserve where lions roam, herders' incentives to keep all livestock protected in a corral at night have to be enhanced because, according to the registers, only 3 predation cases were reported to have happened inside a corral.

Retrospective assessment of long-term conservation management of elephants in Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa

The elephant population of South Africa's Addo Elephant National Park increased in number from 11 elephants when the park was created in 1931, to 284 elephants in 1998. We studied management records throughout this period in conjunction with demographic data, enabling retrospective assessment of the long-term impacts of management actions. Problem animal control during the 1930s left no sexually mature bulls in the population for a period of 9 years, hindering the population's initial recovery. Population growth prior to 1954 was also limited by high mortality: between 1931 and 1954 inadequate fencing allowed elephants to stray outside their protected area resulting in elephants being shot by farmers or dying from collisions with trains. Secure elephant-proof fencing was constructed in 1954. Subsequently, there was a significant decrease in mortality (from 5.0% to 1.2%) and an increase in population growth (from 3.2% to 6.1%). However, evidence suggests that confinement might have had a negative impact on survival and social behaviour of adult males. We suggest that the concepts of social carrying capacities and behavioural conservation of populations need to be incorporated into management. The case studies described here highlight the importance of treating conservation management and research as necessary partners, and monitoring should be an integral part of any management plan.

Trends of elephant poaching in Kenya: the elephant mortality database.

In 1992 KWS established an Elephant Mortality Database for monitoring all incidents of elephant mortality, to enable the relevant departments to respond appropriately to each particular circumstance. The database contains information on poaching, illegal trafficking of ivory, patrols, surveillance, problem animal control etc. This paper intends to share information on monitoring of elephant poaching in Kenya with other Range States and examine ways of improving the overall elephant security network by establishing collaboration and other relevant mechanisms with other countries, and to demonstrate the importance of establishing a wide and efficient information system within countries, regions and Range States as a whole.