Probation Policy Research Articles

The Ukrainian Prison and Probation Policy (1991 – 2024): Modulations and Key Indicators

The Ukrainian Prison and Probation Policy (1991 – 2024): Modulations and Key Indicators

Drivers of Probation Revocation in Pulaski County, Arkansas

Probation has received relatively little research attention. In this exploratory two-study inquiry, we first analyzed quantitative data to identify factors driving probation revocation in Pulaski County, Arkansas, among 10,260 individuals (mostly male and African American) between 2015 and 2019 (Study 1). We found individuals with felony histories were significantly more likely to be revoked (aOR 17.2 for one or two convictions; aOR 25.1 for three or more convictions). Other predictors include lower education, younger age at first sentence, unemployment, and substance use. In Study 2, we conducted 20 in-depth qualitative interviews with 12 key stakeholders and 8 individuals with probation experience. We found that client financial instability, substance use and mental health disorders, stakeholder risk avoidance, officer caseload, and lack of accessible resources/services contributed to probation revocation. We conclude with recommendations for changes to probation policy and practice, including officer training, alternatives to incarceration, service expansion, and community engagement.

Transition to Academic Probation

Academic probation implementation in higher education institutions aims to ensure that students are meeting academic standards and making satisfactory progress toward their degree or program requirements. It serves as a warning to students not meeting these standards that their academic performance needs improvement. Hence, the purpose of this study was to unveil the lived experiences of board program students who have undergone probation period. The study is qualitative research utilizing the phenomenological approach. This research used purposive sampling. The participating ten board program students were identified and divided equally for in-depth interviews and focus group discussion. The data gathered were analyzed through the use of coding and thematic analysis. Results revealed from responses regarding their experiences: (1) the feeling of self-doubt, (2) gained focus due to limited units, (3) fear of judgment, (4) being challenged to strive more, and (5) kept on blaming the self. In response to the challenges they have encountered, they emphasized the following coping mechanisms as essential: (6) gaining motivation from significant others, (7) managing time properly, (8) becoming optimistic, and (9) having an attitude of acceptance. Also, upon reflecting on their overall experiences, they highlighted the following insights: (10) never giving up, taking full responsibility amidst results, (11) challenging policy with a purpose, (12) making self-realizations, and (13) avoiding taking advantage. The results implied that there are certain interventions to be made within the institution to extend assistance to the students’ situations, such as tutorial sessions, and enhance the guidelines of the academic probation policy to strengthen collaboration with its stakeholders. This study is therefore deemed significant as this highly contributes to the body of knowledge related to academic probation policy implementation by higher education institutions.

Assessing Readiness for Change of Juvenile Probation Policies and Practices: A Factor Analysis of the Probation Officer Attitudes, Beliefs, and Behavior (POABB) Scale

As juvenile probation undergoes nationwide reform to better align with research on adolescent development, it is critical to understand probation officers’ knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about corresponding changes to supervisory practices within juvenile probation departments. The Probation Officer Attitudes, Beliefs, and Behaviors (POABB) Scale was designed for use with juvenile probation officers (JPOs) undergoing training in a specific evidence-based supervision strategy (i.e., Graduated Response) to assess staff’s knowledge and beliefs about Graduated Response’s practices and intended supervisory behaviors. To provide foundational empirical support for the novel scale, the current study examined the factor structure of this self-report measure using POABB data from 351 juvenile probation staff across three mid-Atlantic states. An exploratory factor analysis revealed that a five-factor structure within the POABB provided the best fit and, overall, the POABB had good internal reliability (ɑ = 0.84). Importantly, the five-factor structure suggests a key difference between knowledge of Graduated Response components and attitudes toward using those components in everyday practice. Results suggest that use of the POABB can provide probation departments with information about specific attitudes and overall willingness to implement specific supervision practices as well as offer targeted areas for additional training to support developmentally appropriate probation transformations.

Mental health and probation supervision in Ireland

In 2019, three internal studies were conducted in the Irish Probation Service exploring mental health among persons subject to probation supervision. This paper briefly considers, as context for the studies, the Irish and wider international literature exploring mental health problems among those engaged with probation services and outlines the key findings from the three studies. The studies though limited in scale, scope and methodology were consistent in identifying recurring themes supporting the broader research literature highlighting the prevalence of mental health problems among probation service clients. The paper discusses the key findings and implications for probation policy and practice, and looks to ongoing developments and related new initiatives in the field in Ireland.

Individuals With Mental Illnesses on Probation: The Intersection of Trauma, Race, and Gender

Little research exists about PTSD and traumatic experiences among justice-involved individuals with mental illnesses and how those experiences differ by race and gender. We examined traumatic experiences and PTSD among 187 individuals with serious mental illnesses on probation in the United States: 94% of participants experienced a traumatic event, rates of PTSD were highest among Black women ( p < .001), and rates of sexual assault were highest among White women ( p < .001). Justice-involved individuals with mental illnesses have complex needs and an elevated risk of PTSD and exposure to traumatic events, which has implications for probation policy and practice.

Undergraduate Academic Probation Policies in U.S. Universities: A Policy Discourse Analysis

This paper explores undergraduate academic probation policies in United States universities from a policy discourse analysis perspective. Academic probation policies from 32 institutions were characterized by normalization and regulation. These encompassed classification, exclusion, and sanctions of students in order to produce retention. Consideration needs to be given to existing academic probation policies as discourse, their origins, the social identities, and particular realities that are being constructed by them. Institutions should question if academic probation policies are truly aligned with student retention to avoid these policies being an obstacle itself to student retention. Keywords: academic probation policy, higher education, critical discourse analysis, student retention. Cet article explore les politiques de probation académique des étudiants de premier cycle dans les universités américaines dans une perspective d'analyse du discours politique. Les politiques de probation académique de 32 institutions sont caractérisées par la normalisation et la régulation. Elles englobent la classification, l'exclusion et les sanctions des étudiants afin de favoriser la rétention. Il est nécessaire de prendre en considération les politiques de probation académique existantes en tant que discours, leurs origines, ainsi que les identités sociales et les réalités particulières qu'elles construisent. Les institutions devraient se demander si les politiques de probation académique sont réellement alignées sur la rétention des étudiants afin d'éviter que ces politiques ne soient elles-mêmes un obstacle à la rétention des étudiants. Mots clés : politique de probation académique, enseignement supérieur, analyse du discours critique, persévérance scolaire

COVID-19 and Juvenile Probation: A Qualitative Examination of Emergent Challenges and Useful Strategies.

The emergence of COVID-19 placed immediate pressure on the juvenile justice system to adapt to changes in case processing and decision-making practices. Juvenile probation agencies were tasked with quickly altering their policies and practice to abide by local public health measures. As probation supervision is the most common disposition in the juvenile justice system, there is both an empirical and practical need to understand the impact that COVID-19 has on a variety of issues surrounding the supervision and provision of services for juveniles. Using self-report survey data from juvenile probation directors across the United States, the current study examines (a) the biggest challenges faced by juvenile probation agencies during the pandemic, (b) the strategies implemented in response to these challenges, and (c) the most pressing issues currently facing the field of juvenile community corrections. Results have the potential to inform future agency decision-making when adjusting juvenile probation policy and practice.

Academic Probation in Colleges of Education in North-Western Nigeria: Implementation and Impact

This study, which was guided by three research questions, used the qualitative method of a case study to explore the level of implementation of the academic probation policy in North-Western Nigeria, and how it impacted on academic performance of students. The population for this study included examination officers. The population is not intended to statistically represent a group on campus but is instead a group of individuals who shared a specific educational experience. Data was collected through interviews with Examination officers in the selected colleges and analyzed using the thematic data analysis technique. Findings of the study revealed that the colleges are implementing probation on students whose CGPA is less than 1:00 point in line with NCCE probation policy. It further revealed that the implementation of probation has positively impacted the probating students by making them work harder to remedy their deficiencies, improve their performances and subsequently pass their examinations to meet their graduation requirements. The study also found out that most of the probating students see probation as a punishment, a very difficult process, and an unpleasant situation. The study, therefore, recommended that Guidance and Counselling Units of colleges of education should always guide probating students on the importance of the policy for the improvement of their academic performances, and colleges of education should always make sure that experienced and qualified lecturers handle students on probation.

Introducing the Napo Archive

This comment piece outlines the genesis of the Napo Archive and the process of its establishment at the Institute of Criminology at the University of Cambridge. It outlines the scope that these resources offer for researchers, students, and for those with a more general interest in probation. It also points to the unique vantage points that these materials could offer in relation to investigations into the historical development of probation policy and practice, and the emergence of Napo as a professional organisation and subsequently as a trade union.

‘What does professional curiosity mean to you?’: an exploration of professional curiosity in probation

Abstract This article explores the concept of professional curiosity in relation to probation practice. We synthesise existing relevant literature to develop a theoretical framework of how professional curiosity is understood, arguing that professional curiosity can be used to manage risk, develop the therapeutic alliance, and facilitate knowledge building. We then present analysis of how the concept has been used in probation policy and analyse data generated in the first study of professional curiosity amongst probation workers in England and Wales. We conduct a content analysis of the meanings that probation staff (n = 445) attribute to the term professional curiosity by analysing responses to an open-ended question, which asked participants ‘What does professional curiosity mean to you?’. Our analysis is exploratory in nature and sheds some light on how probation workers in England and Wales understand professional curiosity. Respondents were more likely to associate the term with managing risk, although there is considerable heterogeneity between the way it is understood. We draw on existing research about probation training, culture and values to explore the reasons for these findings. We conclude by considering the limitations of the research and highlighting policy implications.

Post-sentence supervision: A case study of the extension of community resettlement support for short sentence prisoners

Introduced under the Transforming Rehabilitation reforms, the Offender Rehabilitation Act 2014 created a period of post-sentence supervision (PSS) after licence for individuals serving short custodial sentences. This empirical study features on the ground views and perspectives of practitioners and service users of PSS in one case-study area. Findings from this research suggest a number of issues and ambiguities with the enactment of the sentence. These include ambiguities regarding the correct use of enforcement procedures; the antagonistic relationship between third sector and Community Rehabilitation Company staff, primarily centred around transferring cases and concerns over the use of ‘light touch’ supervision and uncertainties over what the rehabilitative aims of this sentence mean in practice. These issues led to practitioners questioning the legitimacy of the third sector organisation involved in the management of PSS, while service users experienced PSS as a frustrating ‘pass-the-parcel’ experience, where resettlement support was constantly stalled and restarted at each juncture of the sentence. Before briefly discussing the potential future of PSS under the next iteration of probation policy, this article concludes by arguing that there is emerging evidence of a commonality of failures occurring at every juncture of the short sentence, undermining resettlement prospects for the long-neglected short sentence population.

The Role of Fines and Fees on Probation Outcomes

Individuals on probation are commonly assessed fines and fees. These monetary sanctions serve different purposes. Fines are primarily used for more punitive purposes, whereas fees are often used to recover the costs of services provided. Regardless of ability to pay, monetary sanction payments are often required as a probation condition. Nonpayment therefore can result in violations and potentially revocations. However, little is known about how fines and fees operate specifically within probation. This current study explored legal and extralegal factors that influence the total amount of fines and fees assessed in individual cases, as well as the influence of fines and fees on probation revocations. The implications of the findings concentrate on ways to improve probation policies as well as probation officer’s practices as they relate to the collection and enforcement of monetary sanctions.

Assessing the Effectiveness of a Coaching Intervention for Students on Academic Probation

ABSTRACT Institutions of higher education develop probation policies for students struggling academically. Studies of academic probation programs have not investigated effects related to individualized academic coaching models designed to enhance student sense of belonging and self-efficacy. This study examines variation in attendance at coaching meetings using longitudinal administrative records of students on probation at a public institution in the Northeastern US. We estimated unbiased effects of this academic probation intervention on earned GPA using fixed effects regression methods. Findings demonstrated a moderate-to-large effect that was robust to various specifications of the intervention. We discuss recommendations for practice, including the need to be proactive, collaborative, and flexible to keep students accountable.

Perform Better, or Else: Academic Probation, Public Praise and Students Decision-Making

This paper examines how college initiatives that ascribe public recognition or written reprimand to a set standard of academic performance impact students' decision-making. Many colleges utilize programs such as the Dean’s list and academic probation policies as mediums to encourage student success. These policies impose a cost on affected students through the potential loss of acquired benefits or the threat of expulsion for failing to perform above the established standard in future semesters. Using the regression discontinuity design, I find that students who are named to the Dean’s list or put on academic probation during their first year improved their subsequent academic performance. To achieve this improvement, students on the Dean's list are induced into selecting courses and instructors that are more likely to result in higher letter grades and those bounded by the academic probation policy are likely to switch majors and employ a maximin strategy for expected grades when choosing courses.

Perform better, or else: Academic probation, public praise, and students decision-making

This paper examines how college initiatives that ascribe public recognition or written reprimand to a set standard of academic performance impact students’ decision-making. Many colleges utilize programs such as the Dean’s list and academic probation policies as mediums to encourage student success. These policies impose a cost on affected students through the potential loss of acquired benefits or the threat of expulsion for failing to perform above the established standard in future semesters. Using the regression discontinuity design, I find that students who are named to the Dean’s list or put on academic probation during their first year improved their subsequent academic performance. To achieve this improvement, students on the Dean’s list are induced into selecting courses and instructors that are more likely to result in higher letter grades and those bounded by the academic probation policy are likely to switch majors and employ a maximin strategy for expected grades when choosing courses.

Implementation of risk-need-responsivity principles into probation case planning.

Research indicates moderate-to-limited integration of the risk-need-responsivity (RNR) principles in probation case planning. Efforts to improve implementation are important targets for research, policy, and practice. This study examined the ability of two juvenile probation departments to implement RNR principles with fidelity following a comprehensive implementation protocol that included RNR-related policies, creation of a service matrix for criminogenic need-to-service matching, and extensive staff training. The researchers anticipated fidelity to the risk and need principles would be stronger than previous studies. This implementation study involved secondary data analysis of services received over 10 months for 254 adolescent offenders (76.80% male, 72.40% White, M age = 16.13 years) from two probation departments following adoption of the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory. Probation departments evidenced strong fidelity to the risk principle, such that higher risk youth were assigned more services with higher intensity. Fidelity to the need principle was moderate at best (an average 24.61% to 29.38% need-to-service match) and varied by criminogenic need, overall risk level, and the operational definition of criminogenic need. Comprehensive implementation practices are associated with strong fidelity to the risk principle, but it may take longer for probation departments to achieve strong fidelity to the need principle. Researchers should identify more feasible methods for implementing the need principle and strive for a consensus on methods for measuring need-to-service match that are also consistent with probation policies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Probation system in Turkey: an analysis of a public policy formation using multiple streams framework

ABSTRACTTurkey initiated a major reform in its criminal justice system in 2005 and a probation system was officially created. This article analyses the probation policy formation, and development processes in Turkey using a multiple streams framework (MSF), as theorised by John Kingdon. Qualitative method is employed through archival records, governmental documents, and semi-structured interviews with key actors. Findings suggest that MSF explains the evolution of the probation system, which emerged in a critical time. However, although the probation system was set up to overcome the increasing prison population and alternative to incarceration, the number of prisoners and probationers have increased significantly. Today, Turkey has been ranked one of the largest prison population in the world. It is concluded that the penal policy has led to unintended consequences, and the penal system including probation practices has been dramatically politicised by the government.

A Multiple-Design, Experimental Strategy: Academic Probation Warning Letter's Impact on Student Achievement

We aimed to compare the findings of three research designs to bracket effect estimates of a strongly worded warning letter delivered by certified mail to students on academic probation. We embedded an experiment within a regression discontinuity design and calculated two achievement estimates, average GPA and percentage of students remaining on probation. Study participants attended a large Midwestern college. Cohen's d experimental effect size was .45. Regression discontinuity design results were validated by our experimental evidence, and outcome measures were generally statistically significant. We provided additional supportive evidence using comparative RD control group design logic. Regression point displacement design results were successfully replicated using a within-study comparison inside the experiment. In the context of probation, a diverse design, replicative approach provided considerable promise for more precise estimation of intervention effectiveness. We found no deleterious impact on reenrollment and concluded that the certified letter represents an inexpensive probation policy.

Acknowledging desistance

Allan Weaver's autobiographical account and the corresponding analysis by Beth Weaver, is an enlightening personal account and analysis of an ex-offender and ex-prisoner turned Scottish criminal justice social worker, and an example of the value that professionals with offending and penal experiences can bring. There is much to learn from drawing on the offender/ex-offender experience to understand desistance, and this will hopefully become a key component in formulating future probation and rehabilitation policies, strategies and training and development. The unique, and sometimes hidden, journeys of qualified probation and rehabilitation professionals with similar backgrounds should be valued in developing successful supervisory/rehabilitative practices.