Probation Agencies Research Articles

Contextualizing medications for opioid use disorder and peer support service provision in the probation system with implementation science

BackgroundMedications for opioid use disorder (MOUD) is an evidence-based approach that reduces opioid-related mortality, particularly among criminal legal-involved persons who are at increased risk of adverse outcomes related to OUD. Implementing evidence-based approaches in the context of probation settings requires an in-depth understanding of specific contexts to improve intervention efficacy and effectiveness. Here, we use the Exploration, Preparation, Implementation, and Sustainment (EPIS) framework to understand implementation contexts for MOUD provision in the probation setting.MethodsIn-depth individual interviews were conducted with key programmatic stakeholders (treatment providers and probation staff involved in service provision for people on probation). The study examined stakeholder perspectives regarding MOUD and Peer Support Service (PSS) implementation among people who are involved in community supervision. Deductive and inductive thematic analysis was conducted, and subsequently the codes, subcodes, and themes were mapped onto the EPIS framework to better understand implementation contexts.ResultsWe deduced key inner, outer, and bridging contexts that shape treatment service provision for individuals with OUD who are on probation. Inner contexts include a strong organizational climate that supports MOUD implementation and enthusiasm for peer support services. Outer contexts include difficulty navigating insurance among providers, treatment costs, and systemic stigma towards MOUD. Bridging contexts include a lack of collaboration/communication between relevant agencies (e.g., probation and courts).ConclusionsFindings indicate the implementation is complex and requires a coordinated effort between correctional systems, probation agencies, and community-based treatment providers.

Strategies for supervising people with mental illnesses on probation caseloads: results from a nationwide study

Probation officers are tasked with supervising the largest number of people living with mental illnesses in the criminal legal system, with an estimated 16–27% of individuals on probation identified as having a mental health condition. While academic research has recently focused on building the evidence base around the prototypical model of specialty mental health probation, less focus has been directed to the individual components of specialized mental health caseloads and other strategies agencies use to supervise people with mental illnesses. More specific information about these strategies would benefit probation agencies looking to implement or enhance supervision protocols for people with mental illnesses. This article describes the results from a nationwide study examining (1) probation agencies’ mental health screening and identification methods; (2) characteristics of mental health caseloads, including eligibility criteria, officer selection, required training, and interfacing with service providers; and (3) other strategies agencies use to supervise people with mental illnesses beyond mental health caseloads. Strategies for identifying mental illnesses varied, with most agencies using risk needs assessments, self-report items asked during the intake process, or information from pre-sentencing reports. Less than a third of respondents reported using screening and assessment tools specific to mental health or having a system that tracks or “flags” mental illnesses. Results also showed wide variation in mental health training requirements for probation officers, as well as variation in the strategies used for supervising people with mental illnesses (e.g., mental health caseloads, embedded mental health services within probation, modified cognitive behavioral interventions). The wide variation in implementation of supervision strategies presents (1) an opportunity for agencies to select from a variety of strategies and tailor them to fit the needs of their local context and (2) a challenge in building the evidence base for a single strategy or set of strategies.

Identifying Multilevel Community Supervision Challenges to Inform Diversion Approaches for People With Mental Illnesses

Efforts to divert people with mental illnesses from the criminal legal system are widespread among mental health and criminal justice authorities. Most diversion efforts focus on directing individuals with mental illnesses to treatment; however, these treatment-focused interventions are an insufficient approach to diverting people with mental illnesses from the criminal legal system and fail to adequately address organizational and system-level factors that impact criminal legal system involvement. This study uses a social ecological approach to identify multilevel supervision challenges that probation officers face in diverting people with mental illnesses from future criminal legal system involvement. Twenty-six probation agency representatives from across the United States were interviewed as part of a larger study about supervising people with mental illnesses on probation. Salient themes indicate diversion targets related to (1) probation officer and agency capacity, (2) interorganizational relationships and roles, and (3) resources and systems in the local community. A comprehensive framework for diversion must include a both-and approach that maintains focus on individual-level supports and predictors of recidivism and violations, while also targeting the macro- or system-level factors that create the conditions for recidivism at the individual level.

Gender-Responsive Probation During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Learning from Justice-Involved Women and Their Supervising Officers

ABSTRACT In the Spring of 2020, the COVID19 pandemic forced community corrections agencies to adapt their day-to-day processes for supervising individuals and maintaining public safety. These forced adaptations allowed the authors to explore how these changes (i.e., tele-supervision) impacted women and those who supervised them at a probation agency in a large metropolitan county in a Western U.S. state. To date, limited research surrounds how COVID-related adaptations impacted gender-responsive, or women-centered, community supervision caseloads. To address this gap in the literature, the current study utilizes a qualitative approach to explore the experiences of 17 community corrections staff and clients on gender-responsive probation supervision during the pandemic. Their narratives suggest both positive outcomes (e.g., accessibility, reducing tendencies to over-supervise) and challenges (e.g., accountability, lacking a relational component) with tele-supervision and tele-treatment models. It is critical to utilize the lived experiences of those directly impacted by COVID-related changes, including community corrections staff and clients, to help shape gender-responsive supervision moving forward.

Probation Under Quarantine: The Impact of COVID-19 on Probation in Alameda County

ABSTRACT In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic rapidly changed how organizations had to operate to decrease public health risk. Consequently, COVID-19 had substantial impacts on probation organizations, their staff, and the clients they serve. The current study examines how this pandemic affected one California probation agency. Using administrative data (n = 36 months) and staff surveys (n = 216), the study found that COVID-19 affected population trends, changed the composition of probation client populations, caused wide-ranging challenges for clients, and affected staff’s wellbeing and work experiences. In particular, shifts to virtual work were a dramatic change for the agency. Lessons learned from this study can assist agencies to best support staff and clients as the pandemic continues, as well as inform future responses to public health crises and other disruptive emergencies. Experiences with virtual work can also guide future consideration of the use of virtual technology within probation spaces.

Size and attributes of probation officers’ service provider networks: connecting individuals with mental illnesses to community-based supports

This exploratory study examines inter-organizational communication patterns and information sharing between probation officers and service providers when coordinating services for people with mental illnesses on probation. Thirty-four probation officers from one rural (n = 12) and one urban (n = 22) county completed a researcher-administered questionnaire pertaining to the size of probation officers’ service provider networks and the frequency and nature of contacts with those networks. Egocentric network analysis and bivariate inferential statistics were used to examine direct relational ties between each officer and the service providers within their communities. Probation officers in both counties reported high frequency of contact with service providers and indicated that service providers and officers were more likely to share information if reciprocated by their dyad counterpart. Probation agencies may consider enhancing probation officers’ service provider networks and fostering reciprocal and mutually-beneficial relationships to ensure timely access to services for adults with mental illnesses who are on probation.

A systematic literature review exploring the role of the educational psychologist in supporting youth justice services

This systematic literature review (SLR) aims to explore the current role and functions of educational psychologist (EP) practice within youth justice work. The Crime and Disorder Act (1998) requires all local authorities (LAs) to have a multi-agency team (incorporating health, education, care, police and probation agencies) whose role is to support children and young people known to the Youth Justice System, with the aim of tackling the multi-faceted risk factors linked with youth offending. However, a review of the Youth Justice System by Charlie Taylor (2016) highlighted that there was often little knowledge about education and learning development amongst youth justice professionals (YJPs), and that emotional and mental health needs of those within the system were rising. This, along with the government proposal to develop child psychology knowledge amongst YJPs (Ministry of Justice, 2016a), suggests there is place for EP involvement. Searches of six databases and reference harvesting yielded 10 studies which met eligibility criteria. These were assessed for methodological quality and appropriateness of focus. Though the small number may be viewed as a limitation, it highlights the need for research within this area. The findings of this SLR contribute to the understanding of how the functions of the EP role can be utilised in supporting youth justice services. It concludes with exemplifying how the functions enable EPs to work as scientist-practitioners within complex, real-world contexts, such as youth justice work.

Building a Fair and Just Federal Community Supervision System

The federal community supervision system is in need of reforms that promote fairness and justice, and can look to changes and innovations in state and local level supervision as a guide to creating transformation. This article begins with a brief overview of the history of both the state and federal supervision systems and then describes the current problematic state of what is now being called “mass supervision” – including the substantial growth in community supervision and mounting concerns with technical violations and revocations propelling cycles of incarceration and racial disparities. The article highlights reforms and initiatives in supervision that are being implemented at the state and local levels as an increasing number of elected district attorneys across the country have taken action to limit supervision lengths and incarceration for technical violations and end the practice of automatically opposing parole release. In the wake of the Covid-19 pandemic, states, counties, courts, and local probation and parole agencies also took quick action to revisit and limit community supervision without negatively impacting public safety. Lastly, the article sets forth recommendations to build a fair and just federal community supervision system, including by: reducing the use of supervised release; revisiting onerous terms, conditions and length of supervision; ending the imposition of lifetime supervision; eliminating the needless cycle of incarceration for technical violations; addressing racial disparities; identifying opportunities for early termination from supervision; and considering reinstatement of parole.

Sex Offense Management and Supervision: A Framework for Advancing Research and Evidence-Informed Practice

ABSTRACT Since the 1990s, the post-conviction management of individuals with histories of sexual offending has occupied a prominent place in U.S. criminal justice policy and practice. With over 200,000 such individuals under supervision nationwide, probation and parole agencies have deployed a range of specialized models of sex offender management and supervision (SOMS) to manage this “high stakes” population. Yet despite significant shifts in community supervision paradigms and research advances affecting SOMS practices over the past three decades, the body of research concerning the integration of evidence into these practices remains outdated and underdeveloped. In response to this need, the current article introduces the SOMS Framework, developed based on a multi-method investigation into the current state of SOMS practice. The framework aligns elements of the policy and practice environment with constructs elucidated through insights drawn from implementation science and knowledge utilization scholarship. Through this praxis orientation, the framework is intended to serve as a roadmap for use in the multiple contexts, including public policy development, agency-level planning and evaluation, and scholarly research.

Еволюція підготовчого судового провадження в кримінальному процесуальному законодавстві

The article deals with the genesis of the preparatory judicial proceedings phases in the criminal procedural legislation. The stages, that took place at different period throughout the history of national criminal trail development are characterized. The article aims at investigating the specific features of every stage of the preparatory judicial proceedings. Special focus is placed on revealing the essence and purpose of the preparatory judicial proceedings phase. The paper provides an overview of the Criminal Legislation Statute that caused the reform in the judicial system in 1864; the Code of Criminal Procedure dated 1922, 1927 that resulted in transformation of the pre-trail stage; the Criminal Procedural Code of Ukraine dated 1960, 2012. The key tasks to be solved at every stage of preparatory judicial proceeding are also outlined. The essence of the stage of preparatory proceedings according to current Criminal Procedural Code is considered. As the probation agency was included to the parts of the court proceedings, its role in terms of investigating for the court and writing pre-sentence reports (also known as probation reports, the main aim of which is to give information characterizing an offender) at the stage of preparatory judicial proceedings is also highlighted in the paper. The article also covers main objectives of the court at the preparatory stage; as well as measures to ensure criminal proceedings that may be used at the stage of pre-trail investigation in order to achieve the effectiveness of criminal proceedings. From the analysis made, it can be affirmed that preparatory judicial proceedings are constantly changing; and its main task is to create prerequisite for resolving criminal proceeding in a legal, fair and efficient manner at the stage of pre-trail hearing. Key words: stages of preparatory judicial proceedings, pre-trail proceedings, evolution, statutory regulation.

COVID-19 and Juvenile Probation: A Qualitative Examination of Emergent Challenges and Useful Strategies.

The emergence of COVID-19 placed immediate pressure on the juvenile justice system to adapt to changes in case processing and decision-making practices. Juvenile probation agencies were tasked with quickly altering their policies and practice to abide by local public health measures. As probation supervision is the most common disposition in the juvenile justice system, there is both an empirical and practical need to understand the impact that COVID-19 has on a variety of issues surrounding the supervision and provision of services for juveniles. Using self-report survey data from juvenile probation directors across the United States, the current study examines (a) the biggest challenges faced by juvenile probation agencies during the pandemic, (b) the strategies implemented in response to these challenges, and (c) the most pressing issues currently facing the field of juvenile community corrections. Results have the potential to inform future agency decision-making when adjusting juvenile probation policy and practice.

Misunderstanding and Sensemaking among Juvenile Probation Officers Working with Evidence-Based Practices

ABSTRACT Evidence-based practices and programs (EBPs) have been adopted in juvenile probation agencies nationwide to maximize the number of successful probation cases. However, various pragmatic studies have found that JPOs are not yielding the expected benefits when compared to efficacy studies. Using focus group and survey data, the current study sought to increase our understanding of the gap between pragmatic and efficacy studies in juvenile probation settings by examining JPOs’ perceptions and utilization of EBPs. The findings suggest that JPOs are misunderstanding how to use EBPs in daily practice, leaving them with negative perceptions of EBPs. Implications for improving JPO understanding and use of EBPs are discussed.

What Makes or Breaks Evidence-Based Supervision? Staff and Organizational Predictors of Evidence-Based Practice in Probation.

Research on staff and organizational factors that affect receptivity, adoption, feasibility, and utilization of innovations in justice settings is limited. This study uses survey data from 349 employees in one probation agency to assess how staff and perceived organizational factors influence attitudes related to evidence-based practices (EBPs) and their self-reported use. Staff characteristics, including education and knowledge about EBPs, and perceptions of the organization, including cynicism about the organization's ability to change, predicted EBP outcomes. Staff age, tenure at the agency, and caseload size affected perceptions of organizational culture, but did not predict attitudes or use of EBPs. There is weak evidence for a relationship between self-reported use of EBPs with attitudinal support for EBPs, prior EBP training, and knowledge of EBPs. This study contributes to an emerging body of literature about the impact of various individual and organizational factors on support for EBPs with important lessons for implementation.

Examining the Personal and Perceived Organizational Characteristics Associated With Juvenile Probation Staff Job Satisfaction

Satisfied employees are essential to an organization, as they are often the primary means for meeting organizational needs. Job satisfaction is particularly important among criminal justice agencies, specifically probation agencies that largely rely on personnel for the supervision and rehabilitation of individuals. Yet, the correlates of job satisfaction among juvenile probation staff are largely unknown. Following organizational climate theory, the current study utilizes baseline data from the Juvenile Justice–Translational Research on Adolescents in the Legal System (JJ-TRIALS) initiative, a project conducted in seven states with 36 participating juvenile probation agencies. Factor analysis and structural equation modeling were utilized to examine the latent structure of organizational characteristics and potential mediating effects. Regression analyses were utilized to examine the direct relationship between job satisfaction and personal and organizational factors. Results highlight the importance of workplace factors and suggest efforts toward improving job satisfaction should focus on the improvement of organizational characteristics.

Staff Training Aimed at Reducing Rearrest: Probation officer attitudes and experiences

Community correction organisations have recognised the importance of implementing evidence-based practices to improve probation practice and reduce recidivism rates. Research finds when probation agencies implement evidence-based practices in line with the Risk, Need, Responsivity model with fidelity, reductions in recidivism are possible. However, challenges of implementation persist. To assist in the translation of evidence-based practices to real-world practice, researchers and practitioners developed community supervision officer training programmes. Using qualitative interview data of trained federal probation officers, this study examined the implementation of the Staff Training Aimed at Reducing Rearrest. This study explored (1) probation officer attitudes and perceptions of Staff Training Aimed at Reducing Rearrest, training and implementation process; (2) how users and coaches implement key components of Staff Training Aimed at Reducing Rearrest; and (3) the organisational facilitators and barriers associated with Staff Training Aimed at Reducing Rearrest implementation. Findings suggest positive attitudes towards Staff Training Aimed at Reducing Rearrest for improving supervision process and highlight key facilitators and barriers that can be addressed to support successful implementation efforts.

Evidence-Based Practices in Community Corrections: Officers’ Perceptions of Professional Relevance and Personal Competence

While the broad goals of U.S. probation and parole agencies have shifted over time, many departments have recently begun to implement evidence-based practices (EBPs) in supervision. Adoption of EBPs, however, requires the support and active participation of line-level officers. To explore officers’ perceptions of both traditional and EBP supervision measures, we surveyed probation and parole officers in seven community corrections departments across five states. Our analyses suggest that officers identify both traditional and EBP measures as relevant to their jobs, and officers generally feel very confident in their abilities to incorporate traditional and EBP measures into their supervision approaches. Moreover, several individual and work-related variables are associated with officers’ perceived competencies for several EBP and traditional measures. Further, officers tend to feel confident with multiple supervision techniques and do not separate into camps that favor traditional versus evidence-based practices. We discuss policy implications of these findings and directions for future research.

Evidence‐Based Skills in Criminal Justice: International Research on Supporting Rehabilitation and DesistanceP. Ugwudike, P. Raynor and J. Annison (Eds.). Bristol: Policy Press (2018) 224pp. £64.00hb, £21.59pb ISBN 978‐1‐4473‐3296‐1; 978–1447333012

Evidence‐Based Skills in Criminal Justice: International Research on Supporting Rehabilitation and DesistanceP. Ugwudike, P. Raynor and J. Annison (Eds.). Bristol: Policy Press (2018) 224pp. £64.00hb, £21.59pb ISBN 978‐1‐4473‐3296‐1; 978–1447333012

Variation in Criminogenic Risks by Mental Health Symptom Severity: Implications for Mental Health Services and Research.

Although a growing body of literature has demonstrated that justice-involved people with mental illnesses have criminogenic risk factors at similar or elevated rates as compared to justice-involved people without mental illnesses, more information about how criminogenic risks vary by intensity of mental health symptoms is needed. This information is particularly important for probation agencies who supervise the vast majority of justice-involved individuals with mental illnesses and who are increasingly implementing specialty mental health supervision approaches. To this end, this study examines the relationship between criminogenic risk and intensity of self-reported symptoms of mental illnesses among 201,905 individuals on probation from a large southeastern state. Self-report measures of symptoms of mental illnesses were categorized as low, moderate or high and criminogenic risks were compared among the following three groups: (1) those with no or low self-reported symptoms of mental illness; (2) those reporting moderate levels of symptoms; and (3) those reporting high or elevated levels of symptoms. Our findings suggest that the strength of relationships between symptoms of mental illnesses and criminogenic risks varies by type of criminogenic risk. Also, elevated symptoms of mental illness are associated with higher levels of criminogenic risks. More research about interventions that address mental illnesses and criminogenic risks is needed to inform practice and policy.

Negative Impact of the Job: Secondary Trauma Among Juvenile Detention and Juvenile Probation Officers.

The purpose of this article is to extend the existing literature on the workplace experiences of staff who work with juvenile offenders. We do this by assessing the extent of secondary trauma among a sample of juvenile detention officers and juvenile probation officers, and examine whether or not predictors of secondary trauma differ by position. Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression results based on a survey of 298 staff reveal that secondary trauma is relatively low among both juvenile detention officers and juvenile court/probation officers. Additionally, results indicate predictors of secondary trauma differ for each of these job positions. Experiencing threat or harm from offenders increased secondary trauma for detention officers but not for probation/court officers. However, having a higher level of education and input into decision-making decreased secondary trauma for probation/court officers, but not for detention officers. Greater support from coworkers led to decreased secondary trauma for both detention and probation/court officers. Implications for detention and probation agencies include efforts to improve supervisor and coworker support, as well as debriefing sessions after threat of harm incidents have occurred.

Falling between two systems of care: Engaging families, behavioral health and the justice systems to increase uptake of substance use treatment in youth on probation

Justice-involved youth (JIY) in the US have high rates of substance use (SU) problems, yet 50%–80% of these youth do not receive necessary services. There has been no systematic exploration of the use of treatment services for JIY that examines viewpoints across stakeholders in justice- and treatment-systems as well as the families. We conducted qualitative interviews and focus groups with n = 58, youth, their caregivers, SU treatment providers and probation officers in a Northeastern state. Interviews explored how families, staff- and system-level factors influence uptake of and retention in SU treatment services in youth on probation. We conducted a thematic analysis of all interview texts. Caregiver engagement is essential for youth treatment uptake and retention. Difficulties achieving caregiver engagement and agreement that treatment was necessary stemmed from distrust in the “system”; denial or minimization of youth's SU problem; relational barriers; and overburden and chaos within the family system. Structural barriers to service uptake were lack of available treatment options, SU agency practices and policies, and interagency collaboration between SU treatment agencies and probation. Enhancing family engagement at the point of referral to SU treatment is essential. Improvements in interagency collaboration and communication between SU treatment and probation agencies are necessary. Implications for policy and intervention are discussed.