Probable Developmental Coordination Disorder Research Articles

Kinderkinetics motor intervention framework for children with Developmental Coordination Disorder:

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a motor coordination disorder that persists if intervention is not provided. Local guidelines are unavailable for intervention in children with probable DCD (p-DCD), and the aim of this study was to develop a motor intervention framework focusing specifically on the South African population within the scope of kinderkinetics, based on expert information, as a guideline for children with DCD or p-DCD. Twenty-nine kinderkinetics experts from South Africa participated in a three-round e-Delphi process. Round one obtained consensus and opinions from the experts by reviewing literature findings on intervention for children with DCD or p-DCD. Rounds two and three were based on answers and opinions provided in round one to determine an 80% agreement to accept the statement. Ten main elements formed the foundation for the motor intervention framework. The main focus areas of the framework were intervention planning, goal setting, intervention approaches, intervention apparatus, intervention delivery mode, additional role players, settings, dosage (time, duration, frequency and number of sessions), and evaluation. Understanding that the causes of DCD are heterogeneous was essential in finalising the framework. The research provided unique and collated feedback from kinderkinetics experts to develop a motor intervention framework for children with DCD or p-DCD within the scope of kinderkinetics in South Africa.

Investigating how prior knowledge influences perception and action in developmental coordination disorder.

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is characterised by a broad spectrum of difficulties in performing motor tasks. It has recently been proposed that a specific deficit in sensorimotor prediction and feedforward planning might underpin these motoric impairments. The purpose of this study was to use a naturalistic object lifting paradigm to examine whether deficits in sensorimotor prediction might underpin the broad spectrum of difficulties individuals with DCD face when interacting with objects in their environment. We recruited 60 children with probable DCD and 61 children without DCD and measured perceptions of heaviness and fingertip force rate application when interacting with objects which varied in their apparent weight. If deficits in sensorimotor prediction do underpin the broad-ranging motor difficulties seen in DCD, we would expect to see a reduced effect of visual size cues on fingertip force rates and illusory misperceptions of object heaviness. We found no evidence of differences in any metrics of sensorimotor prediction between children with (n = 46) and without DCD (n = 61). Furthermore, there was no correlation between any metrics of sensorimotor prediction and motor performance (as assessed by the standard diagnostic movement assessment battery). Illusory misperceptions of object weight also did not appear to differ between groups. These findings suggest that issues with sensorimotor prediction are unlikely to affect the performance of simple real-world movements in those with DCD.

Motion sense sensitivity of the ankle is abnormal and correlated with motor performance in children with and without a probable developmental coordination disorder

This study systematically examined ankle motion sense sensitivity and its relation to motor functions in children with and without a probable developmental coordination disorder (pDCD). Seventy-two children aged 10–11 years were recruited, including thirty-six children with pDCD and 36 age- and sex-matched typically developing (TD) children. Children placed their dominant foot on a passive ankle motion apparatus that induced plantar flexion of the ankle under nine constant velocities ranging between 0.15 and 1.35°/s. The adjusted movement detection time (ADT) to passive ankle motion was obtained to measure ankle motion sense sensitivity. The results showed that, in comparison to that in the TD group, ankle ADT was significantly increased by 22–59% for the range of velocities in the pDCD group. A correlation analysis showed that mean ADTs were significantly correlated with the manual dexterity (r = −0.33, p = 0.005) and balance (r = −0.24, p = 0.046) scores on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC-2) in the combined group. Similar correlations were found between the ADTs and the manual dexterity (r = −0.37, p = 0.028) and total motor (r = −0.34, p = 0.047) scores in the TD group. This study documents that ankle motion sense sensitivity to passive foot motion is reduced and is likely to contribute to poor motor performance in children with and without pDCD.

Exploring Executive Functioning of Adults With Probable Developmental Coordination Disorder Using the Jansari Assessment of Executive Functions

ABSTRACT Many individuals with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) demonstrate executive functioning difficulties on standardized assessments, yet these difficulties have not been investigated using ecologically-valid measures. 26 adults with probable DCD (pDCD), and 26 typically developing (TD) adults completed selected background measures and the Jansari assessment of Executive Functions (JEF©). JEF© is an ecologically-valid measure that provides measures of Planning, Prioritization, Selective-Thinking, Creative-Thinking, Adaptive-Thinking, and Action-, Event- and Time-Based Prospective Memory. pDCD participants were impaired relative to TD participants, with difficulties in Planning, Action-, and Event-Based Prospective Memory. These findings are consistent with self-reported difficulty and provide avenues for research investigating intervention.

"The clumsiness is always present": Parents perspectives of their adolescents with pDCD

Aim: This study elicited the perspectives of parents of adolescents with probable Developmental Coordination Disorder (pDCD) of the implications of DCD on their adolescents' daily-life and the parents' coping strategies and future concerns. Methods: Using a phenomenological approach and thematic analysis, we conducted a focus group including 7 parents of adolescents with pDCD aged 12–18 yrs. Findings: Three major themes emerged from the data: (a) Manifestation and implications of DCD; Parents described the performance challenges and strengths of their adolescents; (b) Discrepancy in perceptions of DCD: Parents described a gap between them and their children's, and between the parents themselves, in their views of the child's difficulties; (c) Diagnosis of DCD and strategies for overcoming its implications: Parents' expressed the pros and cons of labeling and described strategies they used to assist their children. Conclusions: It appears that adolescents with pDCD continue to experience performance limitations in daily-life activities, and psychosocial difficulties. Yet, parents and their adolescents do not always view these limitations in a similar manner. Therefore, it is important that clinicians obtain information from both parents and their adolescents'. These results may assist in developing a client-centered intervention protocol for parents and adolescents.

Prefrontal Cortex Activity in Siblings With and Without Developmental Coordination Disorder: An Exploratory Study

Background: Previous research suggests that children with or at risk of probable developmental coordination disorder (pDCD) activate different areas of the brain when performing certain motor skills compared with typically developing (TD) children. This study used functional near-infrared spectroscopy to compare prefrontal cortex (PFC) activity in TD and pDCD during the completion of manual (three-dimensional [3D]) and computerized versions (two-dimensional) of the Tower of Hanoi (ToH) puzzle. Method: A total of 12 children (TD and pDCD; one female/11 male, , SD ± 1.52 years) performed the two-dimensional and 3D conditions of the ToH disk tasks, with equivalent executive function but different motor requirements, with functional near-infrared spectroscopy to compare PFC activity. Results: Interestingly, brain oxygenation levels were more apparent in the 3D versus two-dimensional ToH. In the 3D, there were large differences between pairs of discordant sibling sets and this was located to the right medial PFC, with pDCD exhibiting less activation in this region. Conclusion: While only exploratory, we have identified potential differences in the right medial PFC region, which differs within sibling sets with different pDCD status. These results concur with previous studies and are an area that needs to be explored further with a larger cohort of TD and pDCD.

Learning a novel rhythmic stepping task in children with probable developmental coordination disorder

BackgroundDevelopmental coordination disorder affects approximately 6% of children, interfering with participation in physical activity and can persist through adulthood. However, no studies have investigated the neuromotor mechanisms of learning of a novel task with rhythmic cueing. MethodsMovement Assessment Battery for Children-2nd edition was used to identify 48 children with probable developmental coordination disorder (13.9 ± 0.05 yrs., 27% male) and 37 typically developed (13.9 ± 0.10 yrs., 54% male). While instrumented with an inertial measurement unit, both groups performed a novel rhythmic stepping task and with a concurrent auditory stroop test (dual-task), underwent seven weeks of intervention with step training with rhythmic cuing and were tested for retention five weeks post-intervention. FindingsInitially, the group with probable developmental coordination disorder had a higher variability of step timing (coefficient of variation: 0.08 ± 0.003-typically developed – 0.09 ± 0.004-probable developmental coordination disorder, p < 0.05) and a frequency of peak power spectral density further from the target 0.5 Hz (0.50 ± 0.002 Hz-typically developed – 0.51 ± 0.003 Hz-probable developmental coordination disorder, p < 0.05), and were more affected by the dual-task: power spectral density at 0.5 Hz (−7.2 ± 3.3%-typically developed – -13.4 ± 4.6%- prob_DCD, p < 0.05) and stroop test errors (6.4 ± 1.1%-typically developed – -11.1 ± 2.4%- probable developmental coordination disorder, p < 0.05). The intervention led to similar improvements in both groups in coefficient of variation of step timing (0.12 ± 0.01-Pre – 0.07 ± 0.002-Post, p < 0.05), frequency of the peak power spectral density (0.51 ± 0.005 Hz-Pre – 0.50 ± 0.001 Hz-Post, p < 0.05) and relative power spectral density bandpower (3.2 ± 0.2%-Pre – 5.9 ± 0.3%-Post, p < 0.05). All improvements were retained after five weeks post-training. InterpretationRhythmic cueing shows strong promise for enhancing motor learning in children with probable developmental coordination disorder. Trial registrationRetrospectively registered on ClinicalTrials.gov with reference: NCT03150784

End-state comfort planning after explicit goal instructions in children with and without probable developmental coordination disorder

BackgroundWhen completing grip-selection tasks, healthy adults generally plan for the most comfortable end-posture which is termed the end-state comfort (ESC) effect. Children with and without developmental coordination disorder (DCD) are less likely to plan for ESC which begs the question as to whether they are not able to perform this type of planning or whether they prioritize other aspects of the task. Aims(1) Examine if children with and without probable DCD (pDCD) are able to plan for ESC if they are explicitly instructed to and (2) if this transfers to another similar task. (3) Examine if children with and without pDCD perceive the level of comfort of the grips that they use differently and if this relates to ESC planning. MethodsTwelve children with and 12 children without probable DCD (pDCD) (aged 5–9 years) received a 10-min training session in which children were explicitly instructed to end their movement in ESC, after which they formulated their own plan to reach this goal. The study consisted of a pre-post-test design in which changes in the proportion of ESC were analyzed on the task that was trained as well as on an untrained transfer-task. Furthermore, the perceived level of comfort was examined. ResultsBoth groups of children showed a higher proportion of ESC on the post-test compared with the pre-test, on the task that was trained as well as on the transfer-task. There were no group differences regarding the perceived level of comfort of the different grip postures. ConclusionThe majority of the children with and without pDCD seems to be able to adjust their planning strategy and prioritize ESC if they are explicitly instructed to.

Rapid automatic naming and phonological awareness deficits in preschool children with probable developmental coordination disorder.

Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) have been reported to have a higher risk of dyslexia than children with typical development (TD). Phonological awareness (PA) and rapid automatic naming (RAN) are known to be predictive of children’s reading development. The present study examined PA and RAN in preschool children with and without probable DCD in Taiwan. In total, 704 children aged 5–6 years old from 25 preschools in Taichung City were included as participants. The probable DCD children performed more poorly than the children with TD on the PA and the RAN tests. Put in deficit terms, 22% of the children with TD, but 48% of the probable DCD children, had a single or dual PA/RAN deficit. Furthermore, it was manual dexterity that bore the unique relationship with RAN. Automatic visual perceptual-motor coordination may be the common processing component that underlies RAN and probable DCD. The early visual perceptual-motor profile of probable DCD children has not been well recognized before.

The adult developmental coordination disorders/dyspraxia checklist – German: adapted factor structure for the differentiation of DCD and ADHD

BackgroundThe Adult Dyspraxia/DCD Checklist (ADC) is the only existing self-report questionnaire to screen adults for potential Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). It was developed in English and Hebrew, however, its factor structure has not yet been assessed. AimsThe goals of the current study were to (1) develop and refine a German translation, (2) explore the emerging factors in a new and restructured ADC in German and apply this structure to an English ADC, and (3) explore its potential for distinguishing DCD versus ADHD. MethodIn a series of three studies, we assessed comprehensibility of the translation and revisions to the questionnaire. We further examined subscale structure in a sample of N = 148 individuals with DCD or ADHD and retested it in an English-speaking sample (N = 134). ResultsOverall, we found decent reliability and construct validity for the German ADC. Three components emerged with themes of fine motor coordination, gross motor coordination, and executive functions which had strong psychometric properties in German and English. ConclusionsThe studies collectively highlight the German translation is effective and has strong potential to differentiate DCD and ADHD. Most notably, there are unique symptom profiles in motor and executive functioning difficulties in adults with DCD or ADHD. What this paper adds?The translation and preliminary validation of the German ADC in this study has the potential to screen for probable DCD in German-speaking adults for the first time. In addition, the new subscale structure can be generalized to the English version as well and allows for the potential assessment of several key symptomatic patterns in the realms of gross motor, fine motor, and executive functioning skills that differ between adults with DCD and ADHD. These differences were fairly consistent between English- and German-speaking samples, indicating potential for more widespread assessment and differentiation of DCD and ADHD.

Impaired wrist position sense is linked to motor abnormalities in young adults with a probable developmental coordination disorder

Proprioceptive deficits have been found to underlie motor abnormalities in individuals with movement disorders. This study investigated wrist proprioceptive acuity in young adults with and without probable developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and examined how proprioceptive acuity is linked to different domains of motor function. Thirty participants were included in this study (age, 19–22 years), ten with probable DCD and 20 controls. Wrist proprioceptive acuity was assessed using a joint position sense paradigm under contralateral and ipsilateral conditions. The Bruininks − Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency 2nd Edition (BOT-2) was used to measure different domains of motor ability. Compared to the control group, young adults with probable DCD exhibited significantly increased proprioceptive error variability in contralateral (p < 0.0001) and ipsilateral conditions (p < 0.05). Furthermore, wrist proprioceptive error variability was significantly associated with the levels of body coordination measured by BOT-2 (r = − 0.55). This study verified impaired wrist proprioceptive function in young adults with probable DCD, which is likely to contribute to motor impairment in adults with DCD.

Participation of soldiers with DCD in the military

ABSTRACT Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a disorder affecting motor coordination which negatively impacts academic and daily activities in various environments. The military is a highly structured environment with limited freedom, placing high demand on motor coordination, organizational ability, time management, and social skills. All these present challenges to young adults with DCD. Our study aimed to describe and assess the functioning of young adults with DCD in the Israel Defense Forces. Participants included three groups of young adults recruited via the Israel Army Health Survey upon discharge from active service: probable DCD (135), suspected borderline DCD (149), and control (145). Participants completed the Adolescents & Adults Coordination Questionnaire and the Army Questionnaire. The probable-DCD group reported significantly more difficulties in their military service than did the other groups: more unit reassignments, more accidents during field operations, and more complaints related to discipline and professional behavior. Significant differences emerged between both DCD groups and the control group in “understanding of learning materials,” “forgetting belongings,” and “success in the army.” The participants with probable DCD and suspected borderline DCD were able to integrate into the army, but the probable-DCD group performed significantly worse than the others and reported more difficulties participating in the army. These results highlight the importance of being aware of soldiers with probable DCD, in order to assign them duties that fit their abilities.

Children with Poor Motor Skills Have Lower Health-Related Fitness Compared to Typically Developing Children.

Most of the current empirical evidence regarding the relationship between health-related fitness and level of motor performance is based on children from high-income countries. Yet, children from low-resource areas may have fewer opportunities to develop their fitness skills. The aim of the study was to determine if South African children from both low- and middle-income areas scoring below the 16th percentile on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (probable-Developmental Coordination Disorder (p-DCD)) have lower health-related fitness levels than typically developing (TD) children. We hypothesized that children with p-DCD would have lower overall health-related fitness than TD children. A sample of 146 participants aged 10 to 11 (10.05 years (SD = 0.41)) was collected from schools in the North West Province of South Africa, on the basis of their poverty classification. Children were tested for anaerobic capacity and strength using the Bruininks–Oseretsky test of motor proficiency second edition (BOT-2) and aerobic capacity using the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER). Body composition was evaluated using body mass index corrected for age and sex (BMI-z), body fat (BF), and waist circumference. The data was analyzed using Spearman correlations and chi-squared tests. Statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) were found between groups for running and agility, strength, and aerobic capacity. No significant differences were found between p-DCD and TD groups in terms of body mass (36.1 kg vs. 33.3 kg), waist circumference (62.2 cm vs. 59.8 cm), BMI-z (19.7 vs. 17.6), and fat percentage (20.2 vs. 18.1%). Overweight and obesity prevalence was 15% in those with low socio-economic status (SES) and 27% in high SES. In conclusion, children with p-DCD had lower muscular strength, aerobic capacity, and endurance than TD children. Although it has been reported that children with p-DCD have a higher risk for overweight/obesity than TD children, this is not (yet) the case in 10–11-year-old children living in rural areas in South Africa (North West Province).

Motor performance and daily participation in children with and without probable developmental coordination disorder.

To test the mediating role of motor performance in the relationship between individual and environmental constraints, delayed learning of activities of daily living (ADL), and daily participation in typically developing children and children with probable developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Parents of 370 randomly selected children aged 5 to 10 years (194 females; mean age [SD] 7y 5mo [1y 10mo]) were included in the study (321 typically developing, 49 probable DCD). Motor performance, ADL learning, and participation were assessed using the DCDDaily-Questionnaire. Individual variables included child's age and sex, and environmental variables included mother and family educational level, presence of siblings, and area of residence. Direct, indirect, and mediating effects were tested using a partial least squares-based structural equation modelling approach. The model explained 44.5% of the variance of daily participation. Motor performance significantly mediated the effect of individual and environmental constraints, and ADL learning on daily participation. Results suggest that the effect of individual and environmental constraints and delayed learning of ADL on daily participation is mediated by motor performance in typically developing children and children with probable DCD. These findings provide further evidence that interventions to promote participation in children with probable DCD should adopt ecological, task-oriented approaches. Further studies should evaluate model generalizability with clinical samples.

Top-down Inhibitory Motor Control Is Preserved in Adults with Developmental Coordination Disorder

ABSTRACT Two paradigms were employed to disentangle information processing from executive motor inhibition in adults with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). Choice Reaction and Stop Signal Tasks were compared between 13 adults fulfilling DSM-5 DCD criteria and 42 typically developing adults. Additional analyses included 16 probable DCD (pDCD) participants, who had motor difficulties but did not fulfil DSM-5 criteria. Analyses employed frequentist and Bayesian modeling. While DCD+pDCD showed slower reaction times and difficulty initiating Go responses, no impairments in Stop actions were found. These findings indicated no executive deficit in DCD, suggesting that previous results may be explained by inefficient information processing.

Gender and age differences in the presentation of at-risk or probable Developmental Coordination Disorder in adults

BackgroundDevelopmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), also called Dyspraxia, is a common Neurodevelopmental Disorder (NDD) that affects motor coordination with a marked impact on both academic and day-to-day living activities. It is increasingly clear that NDDs such as Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorder may present differently in males and females, resulting in underdiagnoses of women and girls. Aims: To consider age and gender differences in the presentation of at-risk and probable DCD. Methods and Procedures: A sample of 1,476 adults aged 16–60 years were surveyed online using the Adult DCD Checklist. Outcomes and resultsWomen with at-risk (n = 1 8 6, 1 6. 6 %) or probable DCD (n = 6 4 3, 5 6. 6 %) reported significantly greater gross motor and non-motor difficulties and significantly greater impact on activities and participation, whereas men with at-risk (n = 58,16.3 %) or probable (n = 177,49.9 %), DCD reported significantly greater fine motor difficulties. Emerging adults (aged 16−25 years) with at-risk (n = 65,14.3 %) or probable (293,64.3 %) DCD reported significantly greater non-motor difficulty than adults (aged 26−60+ years) with at-risk (n = 179,17.5 %) or probable (n = 518, 50.8 %) DCD. Conclusions and implicationsBoth age and gender differences were found in the presentation of at-risk and probable DCD in adults. This may have implications for the development of future DCD assessment tools and for the training of front-line staff who may encounter individuals with DCD throughout their lives, including teachers, doctors and employers’ Human Resources and Occupational Health staff.

【論文摘要】Effects of Health-related Fitness and Motor Skill Training Program in School-aged Children with Probable Developmental Coordination Disorder

Background and Purpose: Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is characterized by impaired motor coordination that involves difficulty in fine motor and gross motor control and interferes with academic performance and activities of daily living. Due to poor motor coordination and inferior motor competence, children with DCD spend less time in physical activities and consequently result in underdeveloped health-related physical fitness and motor skills. However, evidence on the effect of intervention program focusing on both physical fitness and motor skill is limited. In addition, follow-up studies were also sparse. Therefore, the aims of this study were to investigate whether children with probable DCD would improve their motor skills, health-related physical fitness, and physical activity after receiving 8-week health-related physical fitness and motor skill training program, as well as the effects at 8-week follow-up. Methods: Nineteen children with probable DCD (≤ 15 percentile on Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition, MABC-2) aged 6 to 11 years were recruited and received 40-minute physical fitness and motor skill intervention twice a week for 8 week. All subjects were collected for their basic data and were assessed for outcome measurements at pretest, posttest, and 8-week follow-up. Outcome measures included the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 (BOT-2), Weight-Length Index (WLI), 6-minute walk test (6MWT), sit and reach, 1-minute sit-ups, and physical activity assessed using Actigraph® GT3 triaxial accelerometers. Results: Significant improvement in motor skills (manual coordination, body coordination, strength, and agility components in BOT- 2) were found after the training (all p ＜ 0.01) and the effect was maintained at follow-up (all p ＜ 0.007). Body composition was significantly improved after 8-week intervention (p = 0.035) but revealed regression at follow-up (p = 0.013). However, only a positive trend was found for the effect on muscle strength and endurance, proportion of overweight, average physical activity, and percentage of moderate to vigorous physical activities (MVPA%) after intervention (all p ＞ 0.05). Conclusion: Intervention program that consisted of both health-related physical fitness and motor skill training lasting for 8 weeks had significant positive impact on motor skills in children with probable DCD and the effect still could be observed after 8 weeks post intervention. However, the positive impact on body composition could only be seen during intervention period. Clinical Relevance: Our findings support the use of health-related physical fitness and motor skill intervention program for children with probable DCD to improve their motor and physical fitness outcomes.

Developmental Coordination Disorder, Motor Performance, and Daily Participation in Children with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder.

Children with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) often present with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) or motor coordination problems that further impact their daily functioning. However, little is known about the prevalence of co-occurring DCD and ADHD in the Spanish context, and research about the impact of ADHD on performance and participation in motor-based activities of daily living (ADL) is scarce. The aims of this study were to explore the prevalence of co-occurring DCD in children with ADHD, and to examine differences in performance and participation in motor-based ADL between children with ADHD and typically developing children. We conducted a case-control study including 20 children with ADHD and 40 typically developing controls randomly matched for exact age and sex (males = 80%; mean age = 8, 9 (2, 3) years). Presence of probable DCD (p-DCD) was confirmed with the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ). The DCDDaily-Q was administered to assess performance and participation in ADL. A 75% prevalence of p-DCD was found in the ADHD group (OR = 27; p < 0.001). Children with ADHD showed poorer motor performance and less participation in ADL (p < 0.01; d = 0.9–1.4). These findings contribute to understand the functional consequences of ADHD in motor-based ADL and its relationship with DCD.

Emotional and behavioral problems in Japanese preschool children with motor coordination difficulties: the role of autistic traits.

There has been little research on whether younger children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) symptoms have an increased risk for emotional and behavioral problems. This study examined whether coordination difficulties are associated with emotional and behavioral problems (emotional symptoms, conduct problems, hyperactivity/inattention, peer problems, reduced prosocial behavior) in preschool children and the role of autistic traits in this association. Data (N = 1042, age 58-71months) were analyzed from the Tama Children's Survey (TCS). The Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (LDCDQ) was used to measure coordination difficulty symptoms. Information was obtained on emotional/behavioral problems using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and on autistic traits with the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS). Higher autistic traits were based on SRS cutoff scores (53.5 for boys and 52.5 for girls). Logistic regression analysis was used to assess associations between the variables. In adjusted models, children with probable DCD (pDCD) were significantly more likely to score above the clinical thresholds on all SDQ emotional/behavioral domains. However, nearly all of these associations became nonsignificant after including autistic traits in the analysis. Additional analyses showed that children with pDCD with higher autistic traits had significantly increased odds for emotional problems (odds ratio [OR]: 4.47, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.52-13.19), hyperactivity/inattention (OR: 3.74, 95% CI: 1.45-9.64), peer problems (OR: 15.81, 95% CI: 5.96-41.99), and total difficulties (OR: 28.78, 95% CI: 7.23-114.57), compared to children with pDCD alone. These results indicate that the increased risk of emotional/behavioral difficulties in preschool children with pDCD might be mediated by autistic traits.

Long-Term Effects of a Movement Intervention Program for Children With Probable Developmental Coordination Disorder

Purpose: To examine long-term effects of a task-oriented intervention program for children with probable developmental coordination disorder in a physical education setting. Method: Sixty-nine boys and girls (7–10 years) were divided into two groups: intervention (n = 36) and control (n = 33). All children participated in physical education classes twice a week. The intervention group also had two weekly sessions focused on gross motor skills development for 12 weeks. Children were assessed by the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2, three times: pretest, posttest, and follow-up. Results: The intervention group showed superior results (p ≤ .05) posttest in: manual dexterity (d = 0.71), balance (d = 0.86), and total score (d = 1.02), and at follow-up in: manual dexterity (d = 1.05), balance (d = 0.86), and total score (d = 0.94). Conclusion: Task-oriented intervention provided a retained positive effect in the development of motor competence in children with probable developmental coordination disorder.