Probability Proportional To Size Research Articles

Spatial and emotional distances in parent-child relationships: Impacts on human capital development in rural Chinese boarding children

BackgroundThe policy of merging remote rural elementary schools into centralized villages has led to the emergence of boarding schools as an essential means of providing compulsory education in rural areas of China. As boarding children reside in schools for extended periods, parents' influence on their human capital development is inevitably specificity. The development of rural boarding children is a serious social issue in China, and parent–child distance plays a crucial role in affecting the development of children's human capital. ObjectiveWhile previous studies have focused on the relationship between parental absence and the development of human capital in rural boarding children, this study examines the effects of both spatial and emotional distance between parents and children on the human capital of rural boarding children. Participants and settingA stratified, multi-stage probabilities proportional to size (PPS) sampling method was used, and self-report questionnaires were completed by 2397 rural boarding children (54.2 % males; ages 12 to 18, M = 14.66, SD = 1.30). MethodsChildren's background, family, and school and teacher characteristics were used as control variables. An OLS regression model was used to assess the effects of parent–child spatial and emotional distance on the human capital of rural boarding children, and a CMP–OLS regression model was used to address endogeneity using parents' self-assessed family economic conditions as instrumental variables. ResultsParent–child spatial distance had a significant positive effect (p < 0.05, p < 0.05), and emotional distance had a significant negative effect (p < 0.05, p < 0.01) on the cognitive and non-cognitive abilities development of rural boarding children. Living with grandparents heightened the negative effect on non-cognitive abilities development. ConclusionsThe findings of this study strengthen the link between parent–child distance and rural boarding children and the moderating impact of living with grandparents on the effect of parent–child distance on rural boarding children's human capital providing new insights for promoting the development of rural boarding children. It also highlights the detrimental effects of emotional neglect on rural boarding children's development. This is important for realizing China's rural revitalization strategy and the healthy development of disadvantaged children in rural areas.

IJCM_409A: Prevalence And Pattern of Self-Medication With Antibiotics: A Community- Based Cross-Sectional Study From South-East Delhi

Background: Antibiotics are commonly self-medicated drugs worldwide, with over 50% purchased and used without a prescription. Antibiotic resistance has emerged as a global public health concern. Although many studies have been conducted worldwide to study the prevalence and pattern of self-medication with antibiotics and associated socio-demographic factors (SMA), very few have been conducted in India, and no such studies have been conducted in Delhi in community setup, especially in post-pandemic setup. Objective: 1. To estimate the prevalence and pattern of self-medication with antibiotics among the adults residing in the field practice areas of a medical college in South-East Delhi. 2. To determine the socio-demographic factors and their association with self-medication with antibiotics among the study subjects. Methodology: A cross-sectional analytical study was conducted in South-East Delhi. The sample size was calculated as 200 considering an absolute error of 5% at a 95% level of significance. Simple random sampling was done to select households by using a Random number generator. The total sample size of 200 was distributed proportionately between the UHTC and RHTC, according to Probability Proportional to Size (PPS). One individual from each selected household of age = 18 years who has used antibiotics in the past 3 months and met the eligibility criteria was included in the study. A self-designed, pre-tested, validated, structured questionnaire was used to collect the data. Results: 71(35%) out of 200 of the participants practiced SMA. Nearly 42% of them lived in urban areas. 30% had an education level of high school and above. The Chi-square test revealed that the participant’s level of education was significantly associated with SMA. The frequency of SMA ranges from one to a maximum of five times in the past 3 months. 69% of the respondents administered antibiotics twice in the past 3 months. The indications for SMA were fever (34%), followed by cold and flu (23%) and UTI (14%). Most of the participants who practiced SMA obtained antibiotics from the pharmacy (75%) followed by leftovers from previous treatment (17%). Conclusion: The study revealed that more than one-third of the respondents practiced SMA. The findings from the present study indicate the necessity of activating antimicrobial stewardship programs throughout the country, as well as implementing effective legislation to prohibit dispensing antibiotics without prescription.

Understanding Chao (Biometrika, 1982) [Paper on ΠPS Sampling Schemes

Chao's (1982) sampling scheme offers a systematic approach to select samples based on probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling without replacement but it might be difficult to grasp, particularly for entry-level researchers. In response, this study revisits Chao's method with the aim of providing a simplified and more intuitive understanding. Drawing inspiration from efforts by Dr. Tommy Wright and subsequent group discussions with BKS, we present a step-by-step breakdown of Chao's scheme with illustrative examples, emphasizing its elegance and practicality. This study showcases the value of making complex statistical methods accessible for broader engagement in research and practice. International Journal of Statistical Sciences, Vol.24(1), March, 2024, pp 133-154

Burden of Goitre and Urinary Iodine Status among Primary School Children in Kashmir, India—Evidence from a Population-Based Iodine Deficiency Disorder Survey

Abstract Introduction: Iodine deficiency is the leading cause of preventable brain damage, with 30% of the world’s population suffering from iodine deficiency disorders (IDDs). The objectives of the study are to estimate the prevalence of goitre among schoolchildren in the age group of 6–12 years, to find out the proportion of households with adequately iodised salt, and to assess the dietary iodine intake by measuring urinary iodine levels in the urine samples of school-going children. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in four pre-selected districts of the Kashmir division of Jammu and Kashmir in school-going children aged 6 to 12 years. Multi-stage 30 cluster sampling was used to select the study sample. For the selection of 30 clusters in each district, probability proportional to size (PPS) was employed. From each cluster, 90 children were selected. From a sub-sample of children in each district, 540 salt samples and 270 urine samples were also collected. Results: A total of 10,800 children aged 6–12 years were examined. Grade I goitre was present in 1382 (12.8%) and 116 (1.07%) which were having Grade II goitre. The weighted prevalence of goitre for four districts was 12.6%, lowest for district Ganderbal and highest for district Shopian. Half of the population in all the districts consumed salt with iodine levels of &lt;15 ppm. Urinary iodine levels &lt;99.9 mg/L were present in 15.7% indicating mild to moderate iodine deficiency. Conclusion: Though the present survey showed some decline in the total goitre rate (TGR) from a prevalence of 14.8% in 2017 to 12.6% in 2022, it continues to be a public health problem of mild to moderate intensity in Kashmir. The salt consumed at the household level was inadequately iodised. Hence, efforts in IDD elimination activities need to be scaled up further with emphasis on iodised salt quality control and intensive education at the community level.

Calibration Estimation of Population Proportion in Probability Proportional to Size Sampling in the Presence of Non-Response

Objectives: In this article, we addressed the problem of estimation of the finite population proportion under the Probability Proportional to Size (PPS) sampling technique, when the complete information is unavailable due to the presence of non-response. We developed calibrated estimators of the population proportion under PPS sampling in the presence of nonresponse based on the availability of auxiliary information. Methods: The expressions for the mean squared errors of the suggested estimators were developed to the first order of approximation. The developed estimators of the population proportion are compared with the design-based Horvitz-Thompson estimator and Horvitz-Thompson type calibration estimator which were obtained on the complete response units along with the design-based Hansen and Hurwitz type estimator in the presence of non-response. A Simulation study has also been conducted to support the performance of the developed estimators of population proportion with the help of two real datasets, by computing Percentage Absolute Relative Bias (%ARB) and Percentage Relative Root Mean Squared Error (%RRMSE) using R software. Findings: The simulation study supported the performance of the developed estimators of the finite population proportion based on %ARB and %RRMSE. The proposed calibration estimators of population proportion are more efficient than the other considered estimators in the presence of non-response. Novelty: The proposed new calibrated estimators have practical implications in the estimation of finite population proportions. Keywords: Auxiliary information, Calibration Approach, Non­response, Population proportion, PPS sampling

A Probability Proportional to Size Estimation of a Rare Sensitive Attribute Using a Partial Randomized Response Model with Poisson Distribution

In this paper, we suggest using a partial randomized response model using Poisson distribution to efficiently estimate a rare sensitive attribute by applying the probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling method when the population is composed of several different and sensitive clusters. We have obtained estimators for a rare and sensitive attribute and their variances and variance estimates by applying PPS sampling and two-stage equal probability sampling. We compare the efficiency between the estimators of the rare sensitive attribute, one obtained via PPS sampling with replacement and the other obtained using the two-stage equal probability sampling with replacement. As a result, it is confirmed that the estimate obtained via the PPS sampling with replacement is more efficient than the estimate provided by the two-stage equal probability sampling with replacement when the cluster sizes are different.

Dietary Diversity Score and Nutritional Status of Adolescent Girls with Anemia in Bandung Region

This study aimed to determine the association between Dietary Diversity Scores (DDS) and nutritional status among adolescent girls with anemia. Seventy-one adolescent girls aged 15−17 years from high schools in Bandung were selected using Probability Proportional to Size (PPS). The data on the sociodemographic characteristics, health and nutritional status, and DDS of the subjects were collected. Results showed that the mean DDS was classified as high. There was no significant association between DDS and BMI-for-age Z-score (BAZ) and Waist-Hip Ratio (WHR) in adolescent girls with anemia (p&gt;0.05). Therefore, DDS was not associated with nutritional status in adolescent girls with anemia.

A stratified modified probability proportional to size sampling technique

In Probability Proportional to Size (PPS) sampling, size variable associated with the sampling unit leads to the probability selection of units proportional to its size. In the literature, modification to PPS has been proposed by dividing the population in two groups on arranging the units in decreasing order of their frequency. We introduce Stratified Modified Probability Proportional to Size with Replacement (Stratified MPPSWR) sampling and Stratified Modified Rao-Hartley-Cochran (Stratified MRHC) design in case of without replacement sampling where the data are distributed in homogeneous strata such that it follows Zipf’s law within each stratum and the units are selected using MPPSWR and MRHC design respectively. In proposed schemes, each stratum is divided into two groups and first group is selected into the sample with probability 1 and units from second group are selected using PPSWR and RHC sampling respectively as in MPPSWR and MRHC sampling design. The relative efficiency of the proposed schemes is carried out and an illustration is given using the real data set. The proposed sampling schemes are seen to be more efficient than existing techniques.

Economic Evaluation of Cost and Returns of Potato Crop towards Livelihood Security of Farmers in the Nalanda District of Bihar

"India is the world’s second – larger producer of veggies, after China. The primary vegetable grown in Nalanda is the potato. The goal of the current analysis was to analysis potato farming costs and returns using various cost models. The study was carried out in Bihar sarif and Noor Sharai block, which were chosen due to their high potato production and area. Number of farmers in each category based on probability proportional to size (PPS). Cost of cultivation of potato on the sample farms in Nalanda district of Bihar. Production is generally considered to be a function of area and yield. The selection of crop enterprise to be chosen in the farm and the location and distribution of resources within it depend to a great extent on the yield of the crop, its price and the cost of the inputs used for its production. These measurements for potatoes were developed as a result of taking into account the cost of cultivation and returns on various production aspects when choosing a crop. Per hectare, on an average ` 92552.03 was spent on potato. In the medium farm category, ` 100166 was spent on farming the highest. Followed by small farms ` 92867 and marginal farms ` 84623.09. The cost of various components of cultivation such as tubers (seeds) is the highest (22.95%) in the variable cost, followed by (19.46 per cent) Human labour. The remaining significant factor included the fertilizer (8.82 per cent), irrigation charge 7.77 per cent, machine charge 6.49 per cent, plant protection 3.79 per cent, manure 3.06 per cent, depreciation rate 1.62 per cent and land revenue 0.24 per cent and the percentage of rental value of own land includes cost of fixed cost (21.61 per cent), interest on fixed capital 2.95 per cent and interest on working capital 1.23 per cent."

Quality of Life Among Elderly People in Chitwan District, Nepal

As the world's elderly population grows, the Quality of Life (QoL) of the elderly becomes an emerging issue and plays a vital role in social development. The aim of this study was to assess the QoL of elderly people in the Chitwan district, Nepal. An analytical cross-sectional study design was employed to evaluate the Quality of Life (QoL) among the elderly residing in the 17 wards encompassing all municipalities and the metropolitan area. The sampling method employed was Probability Proportionate to Size (PPS), which facilitated the selection of 26 respondents from each of the chosen wards. In total, 442 elderly individuals were recruited from the community and surveyed using the WHOQoL-brief questionnaire. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze data in SPSS 20. Most of the elderly mentioned neutral status in both overall QoL (71%) and satisfied with their health status (48.4%). Elderly aged 60-69 years had higher QoL scores in the physical (p&lt;0.007) and psychological (p&lt;0.014) domains compared to other age groups. There was statistically significant association of physical domain with age group, marital status, religion, and presence of chronic illness. The psychological domain was associated with age group, education, religion, and presence of chronic illness. The social domain was associated with marital status, type of family, education, ethnicity, and presence of chronic illness. The environmental health domain was associated with sources of family income, marital status, education, different living arrangements, religion, ethnicity, and presence of chronic illness. All QoL domains showed a positive correlation (p&lt;0.01) with each other as well as with the overall health and quality of life of elderly people. The overall health status and QoL of elderly people was neutral. As increasing the age of the elderly, almost domains of quality of life were declining. Living arrangement with family was associated with the environmental health domain. The absence of chronic illness was associated with all domains of the quality of life of the elderly.

Statistical analysis of mental influencing factors for anxiety and depression of rural and urban freshmen.

The freshmen stage is a high incidence period for psychological issues. With the increasing gap between urban and rural areas in China, the mental problems of rural freshmen are more prominent in recent years due to the huge contrast of campus life with their growth environment and other reasons. The concern for the mental well-being of both rural and urban freshman students prompted our comprehensive five-year study (2018-2022) on psychological issues in a group of 12,564 first-year students from dozens of public universities in Shandong province. The investigation employed PPS (probability proportional to size) sampling and was conducted near the the end of the first semester. Using the data gathered, we analyzed and compared the indicators of psychological problems in rural and urban freshmen by Duncan's Multiple Range Test. We also conducted a canonical correlation analysis and pathway analysis to examine the psychological factors that contribute to anxiety and depression in both rural and urban freshmen. According to the findings, rural freshmen exhibit significantly higher levels of anxiety and depression than their urban counterparts. Inferiority, obsession, and internet addiction were identified as the primary influencing factors of anxiety and depression in both rural and urban freshmen. Social phobia was found to be a significant influencing factor for anxiety in rural freshmen, while bigotry was identified as a specific influencing factor for urban freshmen. Furthermore, the results of the path analysis suggest that anxiety plays a crucial role as a mediating factor between the main influencing factors and depression. These results substantially extend former research in this area and have important implications for the development of effective intervention strategies to address anxiety and depression. According to these results, policymakers should assess and intervene of anxiety and depression as a whole, and provide mental health education according to main effect factors of freshmen from rural and urban areas. Detailed policy recommendations are in discussion and conclusion.

Sleep Quality and Associated Factors Among Older Adults in Tabriz, Iran: Tabriz Older People Health Survey (TOPS-2019)

Objectives: The study aimed to investigate the sleep quality of aged people in Tabriz and identify its associated factors. Design: Cross-sectional study. Setting(s): Tabriz, the capital of the East Azerbaijan province in northwest Iran. Participants: A total of 1362 participants were selected from a representative sample of community-dwelling older people aged≥60 years who were living in Tabriz, using the probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling method. Outcome measures: Blood pressure (BP), sleep quality, depression, anxiety, loneliness, physical activity, daily activities, living independently, and social support were assessed using a standard mercury sphygmomanometer, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), the 6-item De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale, Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE), Activity of Daily Living (ADL), Instrumental Activity of Daily Living (IADL), respectively. Results: The mean score of total PSQI was 5.39±2.91. The multivariable logistic regression model showed that being female (Odds ratio [OR]=1.68, 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.29 to 2.18), hypertensive (OR=2.12, 95% CI=1.52 to 2.95), diabetes mellitus (DM) (OR=1.29, 95% CI=0.96 to 1.72), abnormal anxiety level (OR=2.38, 95% CI=1.67 to 3.38), and low PASE score (OR=0.99, 95% CI=0.99 to 1) were significantly associated with a higher risk of poor sleep quality. Conclusions: Low physical activity is a modifiable risk factor for low sleep quality in older adults. Hence, the development of physical activity programs can be effective in improving sleep quality. Furthermore, women are the priority in designing interventions.

Feeling of Insecurity and Hope in the Future: Case Study of Tehran

In recent decades, Iranian society has experienced rapid socio-economic changes that seriously affect feelings of hope in the future (HF) among social groups, especially in metropolitan areas such as Tehran. This study on HF, which I conducted in 2019, provides a gender analysis of HF for Tehran residents based on selected demographic variables and indicators of socio-economic and psychological insecurities. It also analyzes organizational and public trust by applying the Classification and Regression Trees (CART). I selected the participants from different areas of Tehran: 590 men and 610 women out of a population of 4,839,249 (3,054,715 men and 1,784,534 women) using two-stage stratified sampling with Probability Proportional to Size (PPS), and I completed with them structured questionnaires. The results showed that HF of Tehran residents is correlated with their gender (P-value = 0.033). Thus, two distinct trees with over 60% accuracies were fitted. Three influential variables on men’s HF were age, socio-economic insecurity, and public trust. Young men had higher HF than older ones.

Depression and associated risk factors among geriatrics population in field practice areas of tertiary care institution in Unnao district of Uttar Pradesh

Background: Ageing is inevitable for any human being. According to census 2011, the population of over 60 years of age in India accounted 8% of the total population, as of 2016 it is 8.6% which is projected to increase to 20% by 2050. Aim &amp; Objective: To estimate the prevalence of depression among geriatrics age group and to identify factors associated with depression among geriatrics age group. Material &amp; Methods: It was a cross-sectional study conducted between April 2022 and September 2022. Total sample size was 138. Number of subjects to be sampled from each village was calculated by probability proportion to size (PPS). Finally using simple random sampling method, participants were selected from each village. Results: The majority of the participants were in between 60 and 65 years old (63.8% of the total), next 66 to 75 years old (26.8% of the total), and finally over 75 years old (9.4% of the total). The mean age of participants in the study was 65.06+6.60 years. The proportion of male participants in the study was 47.1%, and the proportion of female participants was 52.9%. In present study, it was found that 65.9% had depression among the geriatrics population. Conclusion: This study also portrays significant association with age group, marital status, occupation, type of family and smoking history among depression among geriatrics.

Unveiling Realities: Exploring and Uncovering Young Adults' Views on Navigating Confidentiality and Disclosure in Healthcare Settings in Bangalore, Southern India.

Introduction Research on the healthcare available to young adults in India is negligible. There is little to no data available to describe the Indian young adults' knowledge and attitude towarda doctor-patient interaction and their perceptions on what might be a barrier to confidentiality. Young adultsin India, often face the unique dilemma of being old enough to make their own medical decisions and yet often finding themselves without the freedom or knowledge to do so. Understanding factors that young adults perceive to be affecting confidentiality and a barrier in their healthcare checkups can greatly improve the quality of healthcare provided to them. Objective The objective of thestudy was to assess knowledge and attitudes among young adults in Bangalore City regarding the maintenance of confidentiality by a doctor while seeking healthcare and to identify perceived factors the young adults believed to be affecting confidentiality and information disclosure when seeking healthcare. Method A cross-sectional, descriptive study was carried out using multi-stage random sampling. Four colleges were randomly selected from four geographic zones in Bangalore City (North, East, South, and West). The investigators developed a 30-question questionnaire, comprising sections on patient details, perceptions regarding confidentiality, factors influencing history disclosure, etc., which was validated by a panel of four faculty members from one para-clinical and two clinical departments each, belonging to the investigators' medical college. Subsequently, a pilot study with 33 participants was conducted and a sample size of 60 was arrived at assuming an 83.87% favorableknowledge regarding the right to refuse to disclose information to a doctor, with a 95% confidence interval and a 10% absolute allowable error. Further validation was done following the pilot study. Student lists from the chosen colleges were obtained, and the required sample size was distributed based on probability proportional to size (PPS): 19, 19, 12, and 10 participants from the respective colleges. Random number tables were utilized to select the required number of participants from the student population.The participants of the pilot study were not included in the study. The questionnaire was administered digitally by the investigators, and in cases where a student declined to participate, an alternative participant was chosen using random number tables. Results Results demonstrate that 21.7% (13) of respondents were unaware that a doctor is legally bound to keep details of the visit confidential. A total of 93.3% (56) of the respondents report that a parent/guardian plays an active role in their doctor's visit. Only 16.7% (10) of respondents strongly agreed that they felt comfortable enough to have an honest conversation with their doctor. Respondents report that they were most likely to withhold history regarding sexual practices (55%), alcohol use (35%), and smoking (31.7%). Conclusion Healthcare providers should take all possible measures to ensure confidential and quality care to the vulnerable young adult population. Breach of confidentiality, often in the form of a parent or guardian being present during the history-taking process. can be a barrier to building good rapport and negatively impact the doctor-patient relationship.

Knowledge and Practice of Menstrual Hygiene among Female Students of Government Day Senior Secondary School (GDSSS) Tal, Billiri Local Government Area, Gombe State, Nigeria

This objective of this study was to assess the knowledge and common Menstrual Hygiene (MH) practices among female students at Government Day Secondary School (GDSS) Tal, Billiri Local Govt Area of Gombe State, Nigeria. A cross sectional descriptive study design was adopted for the study and a simple probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling technique was used to select a sample of 133 respondents out of a total of 194 female students aged 14 to 22 years, spread across all the three grades of senior secondary school students. A self-constructed 46-item instrument was used for data collection. The mean age at menarche (first menstrual period) for the girls was 14±1.24 years, and their average duration of menstrual flow was 3±1.04 days. A good majority (80.9%) of them exhibited either medium or higher level of knowledge of menstrual hygiene. This perhaps explains why majority (75.9%) of them used sanitary pad and 43.2% used new piece of cloth. Furthermore, majority (87.1%) of the girls were in the habit of changing pad/absorbent more than once in a day. Commendably, an overwhelming majority (90.8%) of them take bath two to three times a day, and 79.5% use soap and water for cleaning of their external genitalia, just as 66.4% of them impressively practice washing of their genitalia from front to back. Some of the factors that undermines menstrual hygiene as opined by the respondents include “No money to buy sanitary pad” (63.9%), “There is no privacy in school to change regularly” (60.0%), “Family only allows or affords use of tissue and cloth materials (34.6%) and “Religion forbids public places when menstruating (30.5%)”. Considering the above it is recommended that sustainable women and girlchild economic empowerment programmes and free school-based sanitary pad distribution interventions be deployed to the area of study.

Role of oxygenation devices in alleviating the oxygen crisis in India.

There has been an unprecedented increase in global demand for medical oxygen equipment to solve the acute oxygen shortages caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection. The study aims to assess the value of improved access and use of Oxygen Concentrators (OCs) and cylinders during the COVID-19 pandemic in India. This evaluation is relevant to strengthening health systems in many resource-constrained Low- and Middle-Income Country (LMIC) settings. Using a Probability Proportional to Size (PPS) sampling method, primary surveys were conducted in 450 health facilities across 21 states in India. The primary outcomes measured were self-reported utility of oxygenation devices in meeting the oxygen demand in the short-run and long-run utility of devices compared to the pre-oxygen-devices-distribution-period. We perform bivariate and multivariate regression analyses. Around 53-54% of surveyed facilities reported that the distributed oxygenation devices helped meet oxygen demand in the short run and are expected to increase their long-run capacity to admit non-COVID patients with oxygen needs. The timely availability of technicians was associated with meeting oxygen demand using the additional oxygenation devices at the facilities. Facilities that increased the number of staff members who were able to administer oxygen devices were at higher odds of reducing the administrative load on their staff to organize oxygen support in the long run. Hospital infrastructure was also associated with long-run outcomes. We find that oxygenation devices such as cylinders and OCs were useful in addressing the oxygen demand during the COVID-19-related oxygen emergency. Overall production of oxygen to meet the demands and investments in training biomedical engineers/technicians to administer oxygen could help save lives.

Pengaruh Penyuluhan CTPS terhadap Peningkatan Pengetahuan Siswa Sekolah Dasar di Kelurahan Sei Mati Medan Labuhan

One of the goals of sustainable development (SDGs) in the next 15 years is to overcome health problems that are still found in society today. One of the indicators of Clean and Healthy Living Behavior is Hand Washing with Soap (CTPS) which is a behavior of washing hands using soap to prevent various diseases. There are still many people who think that CTPS is not important, just as they only wash their hands when their hands are dirty. The purpose of this study was to determine whether there was an effect of CTPS counseling on increasing the knowledge of elementary school students in Sei Mati Village, Medan Labuhan. The data collection method used in this study is the WHO rapid survey method with a cross sectional approach, namely research that is carried out in one time only. The type of research used is descriptive quantitative research. By using a one group pretest and posttest design. The subject of this research is the fourth grade elementary school students in Sei Mati Village. Sampling was carried out using the PPS (Probability Proportional to Size) method and Accidental Sampling as many as 210 students. Based on the research results obtained through the results of the pretest and post-test showed a significant level value of p = 0.000 &lt;0.05, it was concluded that there was a difference between the knowledge of the counseling respondents before and after the counseling. With the hope that students can have an awareness of the importance of conducting CTPS activities to prevent the occurrence of various diseases, especially in children

Determinants of Medication Non-Adherence Among the Elderly with Co-Existing Hypertension and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Rural Areas of Udupi District in Karnataka, India.

Medication adherence is a crucial component in the management of elderly with co-morbid chronic conditions. Hence, this study aimed to investigate the determinants of medication non-adherence among rural elderly with co-morbid chronic conditions of hypertension (HTN) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in India. This cross-sectional study adopted the probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling technique to find the determinants of medication non-adherence among elderly residing in rural coverage areas of five randomly selected primary health centres (PHC) in Udupi district, Karnataka, India. A total of 360 elderly (72 samples from each cluster) who met the inclusion criteria and consented were interviewed using predesigned prevalidated and standardized or reliable tools. The data were coded and entered in SPSS version 16.0 and analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The study found that 55.6% (n=200) of rural elderly with co-morbid conditions HTN and T2DM were non-adherent to their medications and established Spearman correlation coefficient rank (r) value between undesirable person-related factors (r=-0.444); good family support (including financial support) (r=0.185); poor accessibility to healthcare facility (r=-0.209); detrimental medication-related factors including high cost of medication (r=-0.237) were found to be significant at 0.05 level of confidence (p < 0.05). Further, the study depicted that the chi-square test (χ2) was identified to be significantly associated (p<0.05) with a variable such as education, knowledge, number of illnesses and impairments, vision, memory, and physical impairments. Medication adherence could be improved among rural elderly with co-morbid conditions by identifying and addressing the determinants at the earliest. Further, it is vital to identify the suitable intervention program to address these avoidable problems.

FACTOR ASSOCIATED WITH UNDERWEIGHT AMONG CHILDREN BELOW 24 MONTHS OF AGE

Background: Underweight children are those whose weight-for-age Z-score is less than minus two standard deviations (-2 SD) from the reference population median. Children who are malnourished during their first two years of life and gain weight quickly later in childhood and adolescence are at a significant risk of developing chronic disorders connected to nutrition. This study aimed to explore the factors associated with underweight among the children below 24 months. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 304 mothers with children below 24 months. Probability proportional to size (PPS) method was used to identify the sample size in each ward and simple random sampling with lottery method was used to select the children from each ward. Data was collected through face-to-face interview using a pre-tested structured questionnaire and anthropometric measurement. Data were processed using IBS SPSS v.16.0. Results: The prevalence of underweight among children below 24 month was found to be 25% (76). In this study ethnicity of a children (p≤ 0.001), occupation of a mother (p=0.018), mother’s age at her first baby (p=0.014), and age of a children (p=010) and diarrhea in last 6 months (p=0.000) were found to be associated with underweight. Conclusions: The study identified that ethnicity, age of mother at her first baby, occupation of mother, age of children and sign of diarrhea in children were associated with underweight. Different family and child health related programs should be done to provide education about the childhood illness and infestation, child feeding practices and healthy care of child in order to reduce the underweight.