Proactive Aggression Questionnaire Research Articles

Revealing the Mechanisms That Contribute to Anger Expression Proneness in Patients with Brain Damage: The Importance of Executive Dysfunctions and Alexithymia

Background: The ability of scientists and clinicians to detect the therapeutic needs of patients with brain damage has increased in recent years. In this sense, many studies have signaled that individuals tend to experience an increase in irritability after suffering brain damage, with some patients even showing sudden aggressive outbursts. This increase in anger expression in these patients could be explained by executive functioning alterations (or executive dysfunctions), given their role in goal-oriented behaviors, along with emotional dysregulations such as alexithymia (e.g., difficulties recognizing and verbalizing feelings) and anger rumination (e.g., tendency to recall thoughts regarding experiences of frustration or anger). Therefore, it is essential to understand the mechanisms that contribute to and/or facilitate anger expression in patients with brain damage. Methods: In this regard, the main objective of this study is to assess whether executive dysfunctions (assessed with the Frontal Systems Behavior Scale) would explain anger expression (measured with the Reactive and Proactive Aggression Questionnaire) in patients with brain damage (n = 23; mean age: 56.61 ± 10.68; 57% men) compared to controls (n = 24; mean age: 60.96 ± 9.25; 33% men), paying special attention to potential moderators of this association such as alexithymia (analyzed with the Toronto Alexithymia Scale-20) and anger rumination (assessed with the Anger Rumination Scale). Results: The results of the current investigation led us to conclude that anger expression in patients with brain damage was partly explained by executive dysfunction, especially in those patients who scored high in alexithymia. This model was not significant among controls. Conclusions: Thus, we highlight the importance of targeting certain psychological alterations, such as alexithymia, when implementing psychotherapeutic programs as an adjuvant to cognitive training focused on cognitive deficits (e.g., executive dysfunctions). This, in turn, would support the full recovery of individuals who have experienced brain damage.

Cortical volume alterations in the limbic network in adolescents with high reactive aggression.

Previous studies show aggression-related structural alterations in frontal and limbic brain regions. Most studies have focused on overall aggression, instead of its subtypes, and on specific regions instead of networks. This study aims to identify both brain networks and regions that are associated with reactive and proactive subtypes of aggression. Structural MRI data were collected from 340 adolescents (125 F/215 M) with a mean age of 16.29 (SD = 1.20). Aggression symptomology was indexed via the Reactive Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ). Freesurfer was used to estimate Cortical Volume (CV) from seven networks and regions within specific networks associated with aggression. Two multivariate analyses of covariance (MANCOVAs) were conducted on groups for low versus higher reactive and proactive RPQ scores. Our reactive aggression MANCOVA showed a main effect in CV [F(14,321) = 1.935, p = 0.022,ηp2 = 0.078] across all the 7-Networks. Unpacking this main effect revealed significant volumetric differences in the right Limbic Network (LN) (p = 0.029) and the Temporal Pole (p = 0.011), where adolescents in the higher reactive aggression group showed higher cortical volumes. Such findings are consistent with region/voxel-specific analyses that have associated atypical structure within the LN and reactive aggression. Moreover, the temporal pole is highly interconnected with regions important in the regulation and initiation of reactive aggression.

Exposure to armed conflict and monitoring as predictors of aggression in a population immersed in a long‐term conflict

AbstractAs armed conflict can influence social behavior, exposed individuals would experience modulated executive functioning, crucial to regulating aggressive responses. Since it is still unclear whether there is an association, this study examines the relationship between performance in executive functions and expression of reactive and proactive aggression, measured using the Reacting Proactive Aggression Questionnaire. The sample includes 128 civilians and ex‐combatants with different levels of exposure to the Colombian armed conflict. The study found that reactive aggression was directly linked to conflict exposure and was also influenced by age and monitoring ability. This suggests that an updated working memory and age play a role in reactive aggression. In contrast, proactive aggression was directly linked to conflict exposure but not to specific executive functions. In conclusion, individuals with less monitoring who live in high‐conflict regions present an increased likelihood of reactive aggression. Additionally, reasonable executive control of thoughts and actions, which involves updating past experiences, appears to be crucial in social contexts, especially violent ones. These findings shall inform interventions and public policies that address the psychosocial risks of aggressive behaviors.

Are all types of empathy associated with lower aggression in athletes? A cross-sectional study on Iranian athletes

BackgroundThis study aimed to evaluate the association between cognitive and affective empathy and aggression in a sample of Iranian athletes.MethodsWe designed a cross-sectional study. The participants were selected by multistage random sampling among six colleges in Tehran, Iran’s capital. We used the interpersonal reactivity index (IRI) to evaluate empathy, and Reactive Proactive Aggression Questionnaire, and the Buss–Perry aggression questionnaire to evaluate aggression.ResultsIn total, 492 athletes with a mean age of 27.42 years (SD = 7.72) participated in the study, of which 298 (60.6%) were male, and 194 (39.4%) were female. IRI’s fantasy and personal distress subscales scores were positively associated with proactive and reactive aggression scores (p < 0.05). The score of the perspective-taking subscale of IRI was negatively associated with proactive and reactive aggression scores (p < 0.05). The score of the empathic concern subscale of IRI had a negative association with the proactive aggression score (p < 0.001). The score of the perspective-taking subscale of IRI had negative associations with all Buss–Perry aggression questionnaire subscales’ scores (p < 0.05). The score of the personal distress subscale of IRI had positive associations with all Buss–Perry aggression questionnaire subscales’ scores (p < 0.05), except with the verbal aggression subscale score. The score of the fantasy subscale of IRI was positively associated with the score of the hostility subscale of the Buss–Perry questionnaire (p = 0.001).ConclusionPerspective-taking is negatively associated with all kinds of aggression in athletes. Future studies can be conducted to determine the possible role of perspective-taking in preventive aggression, which can be a target for interventions. On the other hand, the score of the personal distress subscale of IRI is positively associated with all types of aggression scores, indicating that not all types of empathy inhibit aggression in athletes.

Measurement Invariance and Psychometric Properties of the Reactive and Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ) Across Genders

Abstract. Aggression is an important risk factor predisposing adolescents to disruptive and criminal behaviors. The present study aimed to assess the psychometric properties and measurement invariance of the Persian version of the Reactive–Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ) across genders. A sample of 450 students ( Mage = 14 years, SD = 0.81) were recruited randomly and completed the Persian version of the RPQ, Child Behavior Checklist, and Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. The 2-factor model demonstrated an acceptable fit to the data, supporting the distinction between reactive and proactive aggression among Iranian adolescents. Although the result indicated the equivalence of factor structure of the RPQ across genders, the invariance of the metric model was not confirmed in this study. Suggestions for future research and a more accurate assessment of these two kinds of aggression are further discussed.

Reliability and validity of the reactive-proactive aggression questionnaire in Chinese boxers

ABSTRACTAggressive behavior is an important indicator that affect athletes’ mental health. Currently, there are few instruments to measure aggressive behavior in Chinese boxers. We evaluate the Chinese reactive proactive aggression questionnaire's (RPQ) construct validity, reliability, and application in a sample of boxers. 414 Chinese boxers were investigated by using cluster sampling method. We performed network analysis, criterion-related validity analysis, internal consistency reliability analysis, exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and item analysis. A two-factor model of reactive and proactive aggression suited the data from Chinese boxers well in a confirmatory factor analysis. The Chinese translation was able to accurately reproduce the factor structure of the original RPQ, and both subscales had good Cronbach's alpha values. Significant correlations between the RPQ and agreeableness scores served as proof of the RPQ concurrent validity. The Chinese version of the Reactive Proactive Aggression Questionnaire has good reliability and validity in Chinese boxers for measuring reactive and proactive aggression. Future research can evaluate Chinese boxers’ reactive and proactive aggression using the Chinese RPQ.

Association between lower-level of environmental lead exposure and reactive and proactive aggression in youth: Sex differences

Lead exposure during childhood has been associated with a variety of negative outcomes, including antisocial/aggressive behavior. However, different subtypes of antisocial behavior have been found to have different neurobiological correlates, and it is unclear whether lead exposure is related to specific subtypes of aggressive behavior. The objective of the study was to examine relationships between childhood blood lead levels (BLL) and proactive and reactive aggression. Further, given prior findings of sex differences in the effects of lead exposure, we examine whether there are sex differences in these relationships. In a sample of 818 youth (47.2% girls) ages 10–13 in China, we assessed BLL and administered the Reactive Proactive Aggression Questionnaire. Results show that BLLs were associated with reactive, but not proactive aggression. There was a significant interaction between BLL and sex in predicting aggression; boys with higher BLL scored higher in both proactive and reactive aggression than boys with lower BLL, but these differences were not present for girls. These findings suggest that lead exposure may have broad effects on antisocial behavior, but that boys may be more susceptible than girls. These findings may provide insights to identifying protective factors that could be potential targets for intervention.

Neurocognitive and social cognitive impairments in remission and symptomatic states of early-onset schizophrenia spectrum disorders.

Previous studies demonstrated neurocognitive impairments in early-onset schizophrenia (EOS) and other psychotic spectrum disorders (PSD). This study aimed to compare remitted and symptomatic cases in terms of neurocognition and theory of mind (ToM). 50 healthy controls (HC) and 106 patients diagnosed schizophrenia in remission (EOS-R, n = 38), symptomatic schizophrenia (EOS-S, n = 34), and other PSD (n = 34) were included in our study. The Positive and Negative Symptom Scale, Columbia-Suicide Severity Rating Scale, Reactive and Proactive Aggression Questionnaire were used to evaluate psychopathology. A cognitive battery was conducted to measure verbal learning/memory, visual learning/memory, executive functions (EF), inhibition, processing speed (PS), verbal fluency skills. Reading Mind in Eyes Test (RMET) and Faux-Pas tests were implemented to assess ToM. Principal Component Analysis was used to identify cognitive domain scores. Patient groups had poorer performance in cognitive domains than the HC group. The cognitive impairment and psychopathology levels of EOS-R and the PSD groups were comparable for all cognitive domains. The EOS-S group also had poorer scores in Rey verbal learning score (d = 0.87), RMET (d = 0.72), verbal fluency (d = 0.66), PS/EF (d = 0.82) and visual learning/memory (d = 0.83) test scores than the PSD group. Only RMET (d = 0.72) and executive function/processing speed domain (d = 0.63) were significantly impaired in the EOS-S group than the EOS-R group Cognitive impairments seen in remitted psychotic disorders were on the same continuum. Impaired EF/PS and ToM skills could be a cognitive marker for symptomatic illness in youth.

Reactive and proactive aggression in clinical adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: The moderating role of gender and comorbidities.

Aggression is well-known problem in adolescent with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), but the precise relation of reactive and proactive aggression by gender and comorbidities has not been characterized in this population. The aim of this study was to assess the level of reactive and proactive aggression in adolescents with ADHD and in matched non-ADHD clinical controls. The level of aggression was assessed by the Reactive and Proactive Aggression Questionnaire in 391 adolescents with ADHD and in 391 matched non-ADHD clinical controls. The selection of adolescents with ADHD was representative for a three-year-long period in Vadaskert Child Psychiatry Hospital. General Linear Model was used to assess the difference by ADHD, gender, and comorbidities on the level of reactive and proactive aggression. The presence of ADHD was associated with higher levels of reactive and proactive aggression. In girls, the effect of ADHD on reactive aggression was more profound. The presence of oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder in both groups resulted in higher levels of aggression. Our data suggest that adolescents with ADHD have higher level of aggressive behavior, and girls are especially vulnerable in terms of reactive aggressive behavior.

Using Crime Data to Assess Longitudinal Relationships Between Community Violent Crime and Aggressive Behavior Among At-Risk Youth

The goal of this study was to assess longitudinal, predictive relationships between community violent crime and reactive and proactive aggression. Community violent crime data were gathered from local law enforcement agencies and combined with an existing dataset of at-risk youth. Aggression was assessed by parents using the Reactive and Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ). Data were examined over four time points. Autoregressive cross-lagged modeling was used to test two models: one for proactive aggression and one for reactive aggression. Results revealed a positive relationship between community violent crime and proactive aggression, whereas the model including reactive aggression had poor model fit. Therefore, results support reactive and proactive aggression as distinct constructs. Findings also demonstrate that publicly accessible violent crime data can be used to predict children’s behavior over time. Finally, results have important implications for preventive interventions for at-risk youth.

Measuring Aggression in German Youth Prison-A Validation of the German Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ) in a Sample of Incarcerated Juvenile Offenders.

The aim of the present study was to examine construct validity and reliability of the German reactive proactive aggression questionnaire (RPQ) in a sample of delinquent boys (N = 156). A confirmatory factor analysis with a two-factor model of reactive and proactive aggression showed a good fit to the data. The factor structure of the original RPQ could be fully replicated in the German translation, and Cronbach’s alphas were good for both subscales. Concurrent validity of the RPQ was demonstrated by significant correlations with the subscales of the inventory of callous unemotional traits. In future studies, the German RPQ can be used to assess reactive and proactive aggression in judicial and forensic psychiatric care in Germany. The present findings also provide support for the use of the RPQ in cross-cultural comparisons.

The Significance of Family Structure in Internalizing (Anxious/Depressed) and Externalizing (Aggressive/Delinquent) Problems among Chinese Adolescents

The present pioneering study investigated the differences across various types of family structure among Chinese adolescents with proactive and reactive aggression. It aimed at providing frontline social workers and family therapists with inspirations for designing suitable interventions for adolescents with specific subtypes of aggressive behavior from different family structure backgrounds. After completing an online survey including the Reactive and Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ) and the subscales of the Child Behavior Checklist – Youth Self-report (CBCL-YSR) on aggressive behavior, delinquent behavior, and anxious/depressed symptom, 520 out of 13,338 Chinese adolescents aged 11 to 18 were randomly selected and stratified based on the types of family structure (intact family, single father family, single mother family, stepfather family, and stepmother family). Expectedly, boys elicited more proactive aggression, delinquent behaviors, and aggressive behaviors than girls. Besides, significant cross-structural differences were found between children from stepmother family, who showed more proactive aggression, anxious/depressed symptoms, aggressive behaviors, and delinquent behaviors, and those from intact family regardless of gender. The interaction effects between gender and family structure were significant for reactive aggression, anxious/depressed behavior, and aggressive behavior. An interaction effect showed boys from stepmother families were more reactively aggressive than those from intact families. In addition, more anxious/depressed symptoms were found in boys from stepmother family than those from intact and single mother families. In conclusion, the impacts of family structure on proactive aggression and delinquent behavior are not gender specific, but the impacts on reactive aggression and anxious/depressed behavior are only specific to boys.

Cross-cultural Validity of the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire Among Adults Across Five Countries.

This study aims to test psychometric properties and factor invariance of the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ) for adults across five countries: Serbia (N = 409), Mauritius (N = 400), the United States (N = 389), the Netherlands (N = 372), and China (N = 325). The results supported the two-factor structure across country samples, with a marginal model fit in Mauritius. Results also supported the congruent factor structure of Reactive Aggression scale across countries, while the Proactive Aggression scale can be considered as equal across samples from Serbia, the United States, and China, but not from Mauritius and the Netherland. Among items from the Proactive Aggression scale, those referring to open aggression aimed at obtaining social status and dominance, frightening or harming others, obtained the highest loadings across all samples and could be considered as the good representatives of adult proactive aggression. This is the first study in which cross-cultural validation of the RPQ among adults has been tested and results suggested that there are some cultural differences in expression of proactive aggression.

Measurement Invariance of the Reactive and Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ) across Self- and Other-reports

ABSTRACT Many researchers have used the self-report version of the Reactive and Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ) to test aggression in other-reports in recent years. However, the validity and applicability of the self-report version of RPQ used as an other-report version have not been tested. This study aims to test the measurement invariance of the RPQ across self- and other-reports by multi-group confirmatory factor analysis. There were 485 students from grade 4 to grade 6 who completed the questionnaire by themselves, and 485 students from grade 1 to grade 6 who were rated by their mothers using the self-report version of RPQ. Item analysis using the graded response model (GRM) reveals 22 items (except item 19) have high discrimination and reasonable difficulty distribution. Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted on RPQ in a self-report sample and in an other-report sample. The results suggested that both samples fit two-factor model well (TLI =.933, CFI =.940, and RMSEA =.041 for self-report sample; TLI =.947, CFI =.952, RMSEA =.520 for other-report sample). Measurement invariance analysis for RPQ across self- and other-reports was tested after deleting item 22. The results support that the self-report version of RPQ is of high validity and invariance when it is used as an other-report instrument.

Self-Esteem, Narcissism, and Aggression: Different Types of Self-Esteem Predict Different Types of Aggression.

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between self-esteem, narcissism, and measures of proactive and reactive aggression in two large community samples of young adults from two countries (the United Kingdom and Malaysia). Self-esteem and narcissism were measured through the Multidimensional Self-Esteem Inventory and the Narcissistic Personality Inventory, whereas aggression was measured by the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire in 501 young adults with approximately equal numbers of men and women. In both countries, low levels of self-esteem were associated with reactive aggression while high levels of narcissism were associated with proactive aggression. Although this pattern was similar for both genders, the associations between both types of self-evaluation and proactive aggression were greater for men. The results suggest that people with low self-esteem are prone to greater reactive aggression due to anger and hostility, whereas those with high levels of narcissism can act with deliberate, planned aggression to achieve a goal. These effects appear stable across gender and culture.

The Indirect Relationships between Psychopathic Traits and Proactive and Reactive Aggression through Empathy and Emotion Dysregulation

This study examined the extent to which empathy and emotion dysregulation facilitate the relationships between psychopathic personality traits and aggression, using a sample of 368 university students. Psychopathic traits were assessed with the Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised (PPI-R; Lilienfeld and Widows 2005), empathy via the Affective and Cognitive Measure of Empathy (ACME; Vachon and Lynam Assessment, 23, 135-149, 2016), and emotion dysregulation using the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS; Gratz and Roemer Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26, 41-54, 2004). A series of structural equation models (SEM) compared indirect effects of psychopathic traits on proactive and reactive aggression (Reactive Proactive Aggression Questionnaire; Raine et al. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16, 512-524, 2006) through empathy and emotion dysregulation. Findings indicated a significant and positive indirect effect of Self-Centered Impulsivity traits on proactive aggression through low empathy, whereas the positive indirect effect of Self-Centered Impulsivity on reactive aggression was through high emotion dysregulation. Both Fearless Dominance and Coldheartedness had significant negative indirect effects on reactive aggression through (low) levels of emotion dysregulation; Fearless Dominance also exhibited a negative indirect effect on proactive aggression via ACME total score. Moreover, Coldheartedness had a significant, positive indirect effect on proactive aggression through (low) empathy. In a final model that accounted for shared variance between empathy and emotion dysregulation, all indirect relationships were maintained, suggesting that each path is not better accounted for by variance in the other. In all, this study builds upon prior research on emotion-related correlates of psychopathy, suggesting differential pathways from psychopathic traits to proactive and reactive aggression.

Reactive and proactive aggression in children with and without ADHD and negative emotional lability

AbstractChildren with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) exhibit marked difficulty with frequent and intense shifts in negative or positive emotions, referred to as emotional lability. This study examines the relationships between negative emotional lability (NEL), ADHD, and reactive and proactive aggression. A community sample of 96 children (53 with ADHD, 43 control) ages 8–12 and their parents completed a baseline session include a diagnostic structured interview and the Reactive–Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPAQ). Parents then rated their child's NEL using the Positive and Negative Affect Scale as part of an Ecological Momentary Assessment protocol 3 times a day for 28 days. Seventy‐three participants (37 with ADHD, 36 control) completed the RPAQ at follow‐up. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that NEL significantly and independently estimates reactive aggression at baseline and follow‐up, regardless of ADHD status. NEL and ADHD status significantly estimates concurrent proactive aggression, but not at follow‐up. Results of this study suggest that NEL accounts for a significant amount of the variability in reactive aggression, a common difficulty in children with ADHD. Further, individuals that are reportedly emotionally labile become more reactively aggressive over time. Both ADHD diagnostic and NEL are predictors of proactive aggression at baseline, although no interaction occurred.

An Item Response Theory Analysis and Further Validation of the Reactive–Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ): The Serbian Adaptation of the RPQ

The aim of this study was to further explore the psychometric properties of the Serbian adaptation of the Reactive–Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ) using item response theory to gain insight into measurement precision (information) and differential item functioning (DIF) across sexes. The sample consisted of 1,268 community-dwelling adults. Results confirmed a 2-factor structure and showed good reliabilities. Information of the reactive aggression scale covered a wider range of traits, but in the case of proactive aggression, it was limited in above-average and average levels of traits. Additionally, the impact of DIF on total scores was negligible. Furthermore, latent profile analysis showed that a clear proactive aggression profile could not be isolated, indicating that proactive aggression cooccurs with reactive aggression. However, both scales evidenced differential correlates. Reactive aggression was positively associated with anger and hostility and was negatively associated with agreeableness and forgiveness, whereas proactive aggression was positively related to indirect aggression and negatively to honesty-humility and emotionality. Taken together, although information for the proactive aggression scale is problematic, results overall support the 2-factor model of the RPQ and unbiased scale scores across sexes, and add further to the validity and cross-cultural generalizability of this scale.

Skin conductance, heart rate and aggressive behavior type

The current study tested the association between physiology and aggressive behavior type in a large sample of University students (N = 509). Measures of aggression were gathered with the Reactive and Proactive Aggression Questionnaire. Analyses used raw aggressive behavior type scores and residualized measures of aggressive behavior type, which account for the overlap between reactive and proactive aggression. Measures of physiology included skin conductance and heart rate, both at rest and in response to a minor social stressor. Analyses assessed the association between aggressive behavior type and measures of physiology in the full sample and in sex specific sub-samples. Results indicated that resting skin conductance was positively associated with proactive aggression in the full sample and among females. Skin conductance in response to stress had a positive association with reactive aggression both in the full sample and among males. Skin conductance responsivity was negatively associated with proactive aggression among males. Findings further strengthen previous work suggesting that the etiologies of reactive and proactive aggression are distinct and may vary across sex.

Juveniles with a history of violent behavior show cognitive performance and electrophysiology consistent with inhibitory control and emotional feedback processing problems.

Inhibitory control and the effects of negative emotional feedback were investigated in adolescents with a history of violent behavior and normal adolescents using the Taylor Aggression Paradigm (TAP), a task simulating real situations of social interaction to elicit aggressive behavior and negative emotions, with concurrent event related potential recordings. The Reactive Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPAQ), the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS) and the Negative Mood Regulation (NMR) Scale were also presented. These showed that reactive scores, proactive scores, and BIS scores were all significantly higher for the violent offender group whereas scores from the NMR scale were significantly lower for this group. In the TAP, the violent offender group chose significantly higher levels of punishment, indicative of both higher proactive and higher reactive aggression, for their opponent than did the control group. The ERP data showed the N2 amplitude for the decision phase, indicative of inhibitory control, was lower for the violent offender group than for the control group, with mediation analysis showing that the N2 component was related to proactive aggression. The decision-related negativity and the feedback-related negativity in the result phase were also both lower for the violent offender group than for the control group. Adolescent violent offenders showed higher levels of aggressive behavior than normal adolescents. This is associated with both worse inhibitory control and worse negative emotion regulation. Investigation of common factors underlying these processes, in conjunction with possible ways in which they might be improved, should be a priority for future work.